性別認同
系列條目 |
LGBT主题 |
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女同性戀(L) ∙ 男同性戀 (G) 双性恋 (B)∙ 跨性別(T) |
性倾向和性別認同 |
概觀 |
文化 |
權益 |
社会态度 |
研究和論述 |
LGBT專題 |
性別認同(英語:Gender identity)是一个人对自己性別的个人認知定位。[1]性别认同可以与一个人出生时的指定性别相关,也可以与之不同。[2]性別表現通常反映一个人的性别认同,但情况并非总是如此。[3][4]虽然一个人可能会表現出与特定性别角色相一致的行为、态度和外貌,但这种表現不一定反映出他们的性别认同。性别认同这个词最初是由Robert Jesse Stoller在1964年提出。[5]
所有社会都有一套性别范畴,可以作為一個人在其他相聯繫的社會成員中形成身份認同的基礎。[6]在大多數社會中,指定性別中的男性特質和女性特質之間存在基本的分歧,[7]这是大多数人坚持的性别二元論,其中包括對性別(生物性別、性別認同和性別表現)所有方面的男性特质和女性特质的期望。[8]有些人並不認同(或不完全認同)基於生物性別的性別指定,[9]例如一些人是跨性別,性別酷兒者或非二元性別人群。有一些社會有第三性別分類。
除了例外,性別認同在童年早期迅速發展,在大多情況下,到 3 歲或 4 歲時,性別認同至少部分變得不可逆轉。[10][11] Endocrine Society(內分泌學會)表示“大量科學證據表明性別認同背後存在持久的生物學因素。個人可能會因生活中的其他因素而做出選擇,但似乎並沒有真正導致性別認同的外部力量個人改變性別認同”。[12] 嘗試改變性別認同容易导致性别不安。[13]
形成年齡
关于性别认同的形成方式和时间有好几种理论,研究这一主題很困难,因为儿童缺乏语言能力,需要研究人员从间接证据中作出假设。[13]約翰·曼尼認爲孩子們可能早在年齡18個月到兩歲之間就已經意識到性別,並且認爲性別具有一定的意義。勞倫斯·柯爾伯格认为,性别认同要到3岁才能形成。[13]專家普遍認為,核心性别认同在三岁就已经牢牢地形成了。[13][14]在三歲時,儿童可以坚定地表明自己的性别,[13][15]並倾向于选择适合他們性别的活动和玩具[13](如女孩的娃娃和繪畫,男孩的工具和粗糙的住房),[16]尽管他们尚未完全理解性别的含义。[15]三歲以後,核心的性別認同改變是非常困難的,[17]並且嘗試改變性別認同会导致性別不安。[13][18]性別認同的固化持續到四歲[17]至六歲[13][19],並持續到青春期。[17]
Martin和Ruble将这一发展过程概念化为三个阶段:(1)作為幼兒和學齡前兒童,兒童學習既定的性別社會化特徵。(2)年齡在5-7歲左右,性別認同得到鞏固並變得僵化。(3)在這種「僵化高峰」之後,流動性回歸,社會定義的性別角色的認知有所緩和些。[20]Barbara Newmann將其分為四個部分:(1)理解性別概念。(2)學習性別角色標準和刻板印象。(3)與父母一起認同。(4)形成性別偏好。[15]
据联合国的机构称,有关全方位性教育的讨论提高了人们对性别和性别认同等主题的认识。[21]
影響形成的因素
先天與後天
虽然对性別認同的形成尚未完全理解,但已提出許多因素被認爲影響其發展。特别是,社會化(環境因素)與先天(生物)因素決定性別認同的程度是心理學中持續存在的爭論,被稱為「先天與後天」。這兩個因素都被認為對性別認同起了影響。影響個體性別認同的生物因素包括產前和產後激素水平。[22]雖然基因的構成也會影響性別認同,[23]但它並不會對其產生一成不变的影響。[24]
可能影響性別認同的社會因素包括家庭、權威人物、大眾媒體以及其他在儿童生活中有影响力的人所传达對性别角色观念。[25]當孩子由某個堅持嚴格性別角色的人士撫養時,他們更有可能以相同的方式行事,將他們的性別認同與相應的刻板印象的性別模式相匹配。[26]語言也發揮著作用,兒童在學習語言的同時,學會區別男性化和女性化特徵,並下意識地將自己的行為調整為這些預定的角色。[27]社會學習理論認為,儿童通过观察和模仿与性别相关的行为来进一步发展他们的性别认同,然後因為這種行為受到獎勵或懲罰,[28]因此藉由模仿和追隨周圍人們的性別模式來塑造人格。[29]
在早期的性别认同研究中約翰·曼尼起了重要的作用,儘管他使用了「性別角色」一詞,而不是性別認同。[30]他不同意前學派的观点,即性别認同完全由生物因素决定。他辩称,婴儿出生时是一張白紙,父母可以决定婴儿的性别。[31]在曼尼看来,如果父母有信心把自己的孩子当作异性抚养,则该孩子会相信自己出生就是那個性別,并採取相對應的行為舉止。[32]曼尼相信后天的培养可以凌驾于先天之上。[31]
先天與後天爭論中一個眾所周知的例子是大衛·利馬,也就是所謂的「約翰/瓊案例」。利馬在嬰兒時,經歷了一次錯誤的閹割,失去了他的男性生殖器。心理學家約翰·曼尼說服利馬的父母將他當作女孩撫養。利馬長大成女孩,穿著女孩衣服,周圍都是女孩玩具,但感覺自己不像女孩。在他13歲時試圖自殺後,利馬被告知他出生時具有男性生殖器,並進行了重建手術。[33]這違背了曼尼的假設,即人類的性別認同或性取向與生物因素無關。[34]
生物因素
一些產前生物因素,包括基因和激素,可能會影響性別認同。[22][35]
雙性人
在1955到2000年的研究文獻進行的一項調查顯示,每100個人中至少一個人可能有一些雙性人特徵。[36]根據聯合國人權事務高級專員辦事處的說法,人類或其他動物的性別特徵包括染色體、性腺、性激素或生殖器的變異導致「不符合男性或女性身體的典型二元概念」。[37]雙性人的變異可能使嬰兒時期的性別指定複雜化,[38]並且該指定可能與孩子未來的性別認同不一致。[39]人們通常認為通過性別指定手術或荷爾蒙治療的干預來強化性別指定會侵犯個人的人權。[40][41]
2005年對以女性身份被撫養長大的雙性人,出生時XY染色體、陰莖發育不全、膀胱洩漏性外翻及陰莖外傷,的性別認同研究,結果發現78%的研究對象以女性身份生活,而22%的人決定根據其遺傳染色體為男性而進行性別轉換。[42]这项研究的结论是:「研究結果清楚地表明,在嬰兒或幼儿期性別被指定爲女性後,後來患者決定性別重新指定成男性的幾率增加,但與產前接受雄激素就完全確定核心性別認同的概念不相符。」
一份2012年的临床回顾报告发现,有8.5%至20%的雙性人經歷過性別不安。[43]澳大利亞是承認第三性別選項的國家,社會學研究表明,在出生時具有非典型性別特徵的人當中有19%選擇了「X」或「其他」選項,而其他有52%選擇女性,23%選擇男性,6%為不確定。研究中有52%的人在出生時被指定女性,有41%出生時被指定男性。[44][45]
跨性別
決定性別的激素是在胎兒發育的早期階段產生的。[46]如果產前激素的水平發生改變,性表型的發展也可能發生改變,大腦對一種性別的自然傾向可能與嬰兒外部性器官的遺傳構成不一致。[來源請求][47]
激素可能影響男性和女性的言語和空間能力、記憶力和攻擊性之間的差異。產前激素的暴露影響下視丘調節生命青春期的激素分泌,如女性的性激素通常在月經週期後產生,而男性的性激素不遵循這種模式。[48]
社會和環境因素
社会科学家倾向于认为性别认同是由社会因素引起的。[49]1955年,約翰·曼尼提出性別認同具有可塑性,並取決於兒童在幼兒時期被當作男性還是女性來撫養。[50][51]曼尼的假設從此遭到质疑,[51][52]但學者們繼續研究社會因素對性別認同形成的影響。[51]在1960年至1970年,像是從小父親的缺席、母親對女兒的期望或父母的強化教育方式等因素都会被認為对性别认同的形成产生影响。最近的一些理論認為,父母的精神病理問題可能会部分影响性別認同的形成,但仅得到了極少的經驗證據。[51]2004年的一篇文章指出「缺乏對出生後社會因素的重要性確鑿證據」。[53]2008年的一項研究發現,除了母親有輕度抑鬱症之外,性別不安兒童的父母沒有表現出任何精神病理問題的跡象。[51][54]
有人認為,儘管證據很少,但儿童父母的态度可能会影响儿童的性别认同。[55]
非常規性別與跨性別
性別認同可能導致不適合二元性別範疇的人士的安全問題。[56]在某些情況下,一個人的性別認同與其外顯生物性別特徵(生殖器和第二性徵)不一致,導致個人穿著或行為的方式被他人視為局外性別文化形式。這些性別表現可以被描述為非常規性別、跨性別或性別酷兒(也就是説明那些違抗傳統性別身份的新興詞彙)。[57][58]並且有這種性別表現的人可能經歷性別不安(傳統上稱為性別認同障礙或GID)。跨性別者在性別轉換之前,之間和之後往往受到语言和性别代词的极大影响。[59]
近幾十年來,通過性別重置手術重新指定性別已成為可能。一些經歷性別不安的人尋求這樣的醫療處置,使他們的生理性別與他們的性別認同相匹配;其他人則保留他們出生時的生殖器(出于某些可能的原因,请参见变性),但採取與其性別認同一致的性別角色。
參見
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