恐龍的體型
恐龍的體型將目前已知的不同恐龍生物群中,最大、最重與最小的成員列表出來。
備註:這個列表並不包含未公佈的化石。恐龍的體重估計值比身長估計值變化範圍更大,因為使用已滅絕動物的骨骸來估計牠們的身長較為容易。
獸腳亞目
最長的獸腳亞目
以下列表為身長(包含尾巴在內)超過12公尺的獸腳類恐龍。
2南方巨獸龍: 12.3—13.2米(40—43英尺)[2][3]
7高棘龍: 11.5—11.8米(38—39英尺)?[4][3]
最重的獸腳亞目
1霸王龍: 4.5—9.5 t(5.0—10.5 short ton)[7][8][9]
2南方巨獸龍: 6—8.5 t(6.6—9.4 short ton) [10][11][12][13]
3棘龍: 6—8.5 t(6.6—9.4 short ton)[14][12][15]
4鯊齒龍: 4—8.2 t(4.4—9.0 short ton)[10][16][12]
5魁紂龍: 4.9—7.5 t(5.4—8.3 short ton)[4][10]
6高棘龍: 2.4—7.3 t(2.6—8.0 short ton)[10][17][18]
7恐手龍: 5—6.8 t(5.5—7.5 short ton)[19][4]
8似鱷龍: 2.5—6.5 t(2.8—7.2 short ton)[2][16][4]
9奧沙拉龍: 5—6.4 t(5.5—7.1 short ton)[20]
10吉蘭泰龍: 2.5—6 t(2.8—6.6 short ton)[21][22]
最小的獸腳亞目(不包含鳥類)
以下為身長小於或等於80cm的獸腳類恐龍(不包含鳥類):
- 耀龍(Epidexipteryx):25公分到30公分。[4][23]
- 近鳥(Anchiornis):34公分。[24]
- 小馳龍(Parvicursor):39公分。
- 寐龍(Mei):53公分。[2]
- 金鳳鳥(Jinfengopteryx):55公分。[25]
- 小盜龍(Microraptor):55到77公分。
- 美頜龍(Compsognathus):60公分到1.4公尺。
- 小力加布龍(Ligabueino):70公分。
- 大黑天神龍(Mahakala):70公分。[26]
- 侏羅獵龍(Juravenator):75到104公分。
- 恩霹渥巴龍(Nqwebasaurus):80公分。
蜥腳形亞目
蜥腳形亞目恐龍的化石經常處於破碎的狀態,因此很難估計牠們的體型。而且牠們的化石常缺乏尾部,所以估計值的錯誤範圍很大。恐龍體重的計算方式是採用身長的三次方,而蜥腳類恐龍的身長大多無法確定,因此更難以估計牠們的體重。以下估計值主要根據Gavinrymill、Miketaylor (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)、以及 Mortimer (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)等人的論敘。而化石非常破碎,或是化石已遺失的物種,都標上問號。
巨型蜥腳類恐龍通常可以分為兩群:一群的體型較短、較粗壯,但體重較大,主要為泰坦巨龍類與腕龍科;另一群的體型較為修長,但體重較輕,主要為梁龍科。
最長的蜥腳形亞目
1阿根廷龍(Argentinosaurus)31-37.6公尺。[27]
2巴塔哥巨龍 (Patagotitan):30-35公尺。[28][4][29]
3馬門溪龍(Mamenchisaurus):26到35公尺。[4][30]
4超龍(Supersaurus):32到34.5公尺。[31][4]
5梁龍(D. hallorum):26-32公尺。原為地震龍(Seismosaurus)。[4][31][3][32]
6阿拉莫龍(Alamosaurus):28到31.5公尺。[4][33][3]
7巨大南極龍("Antarctosaurus" giganteus): 25-30公尺。[3]
8新疆巨龍(Xinjiangtitan):26-29公尺。[34]
9波塞東龍(Sauroposeidon): 27到28.5公尺。備註:目前已知最高的恐龍,身高15-17公尺。[35][4][36]
最重的蜥腳形亞目
1阿根廷龍(Argentinosaurus):50至92公噸。[37][4][10]
2馬門溪龍(Mamenchisaurus):44到80公噸。[4]
3巴塔哥巨龍屬 (Patagotitan):55到72公噸。[38]
4南巨龍屬 (Notocolossus):44.9到55公噸。[37]
5阿拉莫龍(Alamosaurus):39.5到52公噸。[37][4][11]
6波塞東龍(Sauroposeidon):38到52公噸。[35][4][36]
7無畏巨龍(Dreadnoughtus):22.1到46公噸。[37][39]
8潮汐龍(Futalognkosaurus):20到42公噸。[4][40]
最小的蜥腳形亞目
- 歐姆殿龍(Ohmdenosaurus): 4米(13英尺)[3]
- 貝里肯龍(Blikanasaurus): 4—5米(13—16英尺)[4][3]
- 細長龍(Lirainosaurus): 4—7米(13—23英尺)[4][41]
- 馬扎爾龍(Magyarosaurus): 5.3—6米(17—20英尺)[4][3]
- 歐羅巴龍(Europasaurus): 5.7—6.2米(19—20英尺)[4][3][42]
- 火山齒龍(Vulcanodon): 6.5—11米(21—36英尺)[4][3]
- 伊森龍(Isanosaurus): 6.5—17米(21—56英尺)[3][43]
- 薩爾塔龍(Saltasaurus): 7—12.8米(23—42英尺)[4][44][29]
- 內烏肯龍(Neuquensaurus): 7—15米(23—49英尺)[3][45]
- 雷前龍(Antetonitrus): 8—12.2米(26—40英尺)[3][46]
鳥腳亞目
最長的鳥腳亞目
- 山東龍(Shantungosaurus):14.7—18.7米(48—61英尺)[16][3][47][48][49]
- 埃德蒙頓龍(Edmontosaurus):9—15.2米(30—50英尺)[3][4][50][51][52][53]
- 闊步龍(Hypsibema):15米(49英尺)?[3]
- 貝尼薩爾禽龍(Iguanodon):10—13米(33—43英尺)[3][54]
- 卡戎龍(Charonosaurus):10—13米(33—43英尺)[4][55]
- 巨保羅龍(Magnapaulia):12.5米(41英尺)[56]
- 窄吻櫛龍(Saurolophus angustirostris):12米(39英尺)[4][57]
最重的鳥腳亞目
- 山東龍: 9.9—22.5 t(10.9—24.8 short ton)[4][10][16][58]
- 加爾韋禽龍: 15.3 t(16.9 short ton)[10]
- 連接埃德蒙頓龍: 3—13.2 t(3.3—14.6 short ton)[59][16][60][51]
- 櫛龍: 5—11 t(5.5—12.1 short ton)[10][61]
- 貝尼薩爾禽龍: 3.08—8.3 t(3.40—9.15 short ton)[10][62]
- 帝王埃德蒙頓龍: 4—7.6 t(4.4—8.4 short ton)[10]
- 加拿大短冠龍: 4.5—7 t(5.0—7.7 short ton)[4][10]
- 巨齒蘭州龍: 6 t(6.6 short ton)[4]
- 沃克氏副櫛龍: 2.5—5.1 t(2.8—5.6 short ton)[10][16][63][64]
- 嘉蔭卡戎龍: 5 t(5.5 short ton)[4]
角龍亞目
最長的角龍亞目
以下為身長(包含尾巴)超過6公尺以上的角龍類恐龍。
- 始三角龍(Eotriceratops):8.5米(28英尺)[4]
- 三角龍(Triceratops):8米(26英尺)[4]
- 牛角龍(Torosaurus):8米(26英尺)[4]
- 白楊山角龍(Ojoceratops):8米(26英尺)[3]
- 泰坦角龍(Titanoceratops):6.5—6.8米(21—22英尺)[4][65]
- 厚鼻龍(Pachyrhinosaurus): 6米(20英尺)[4]
- 河神龍(Achelousaurus): 6米(20英尺)[4]
最小的角龍亞目
厚頭龍亞目
最大的厚頭龍亞目
最小的厚頭龍亞目
裝甲類
最長的裝甲類
以下為長度超過8米的裝甲類恐龍:
- 劍龍屬(Stegosaurus):6.5—9米(21—30英尺)[4][3]
- 雪松甲龍(Ankylosaurus):5—9米(16—30英尺)[4][3][67]
- 銳龍(Dacentrurus):7—8米(23—26英尺)[4][3][68]
- 甲龍(Ankylosaurus):6.25—8米(20.5—26.2英尺)[3][69][70]
- 多智龍(Tarchia):4.5—8米(15—26英尺)[4][3]
最小的裝甲類
- 遼寧龍(Liaoningosaurus):34公分,但化石為幼年體。[3]
- 小盾龍(Scutellosaurus):1.2公尺。[3]
- 龍胄龍(Dracopelta):2公尺。[3]
- 敏迷龍(Minmi):2公尺。
參考文獻
- ^ 1.0 1.1 Ibrahim, Nizar; Sereno, Paul C.; Dal Sasso, Cristiano; Maganuco, Simone; Fabri, Matteo; Martill, David M.; Zouhri, Samir; Myhrvold, Nathan; Lurino, Dawid A. Semiaquatic adaptations in a giant predatory dinosaur. Science. 2014, 345 (6204): 1613–6. Bibcode:2014Sci...345.1613I. PMID 25213375. doi:10.1126/science.1258750. Supplementary Information 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期2015-09-24.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Therrien, F.; Henderson, D. M. My theropod is bigger than yours...or not: estimating body size from skull length in theropods. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 2007, 27 (1): 108–115. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[108:MTIBTY]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 Holtz, Thomas R., Jr.; Rey, Luis V. Dinosaurs: the most complete, up-to-date encyclopedia for dinosaur lovers of all ages. New York: Random House. 2007 [2012-01-26]. ISBN 978-0-375-82419-7. Supplementary Information (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- ^ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 Paul, Gregory S. The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs 2nd Edition. United States of America: Princeton University Press. 2016: 70–348. ISBN 978-0-691-16766-4.
- ^ Coria, R. A.; Currie, P. J. A new carcharodontosaurid (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentina (PDF). Geodiversitas. 2006, 28 (1): 71–118. ISSN 1280-9659. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2009-03-26).
- ^ Coria, R. A.; Currie, P. J. A new carcharodontosaurid (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentina. Geodiversitas. 2006, 28 (1): 71–118. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.624.2450 . ISSN 1280-9659.
- ^ Hutchinson J.R.; Bates K.T.; Molnar J.; Allen V; Makovicky P.J. A Computational Analysis of Limb and Body Dimensions in Tyrannosaurus rex with Implications for Locomotion, Ontogeny, and Growth. PLoS ONE. 2011, 6 (10): e26037. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626037H. PMC 3192160 . PMID 22022500. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026037.
- ^ Anderson, JF; Hall-Martin, AJ; Russell, Dale. Long bone circumference and weight in mammals, birds and dinosaurs. Journal of Zoology. 1985, 207 (1): 53–61. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1985.tb04915.x.
- ^ Bakker, Robert T. The Dinosaur Heresies. New York: Kensington Publishing. 1986. ISBN 978-0-688-04287-5. OCLC 13699558.[頁碼請求]
- ^ 10.00 10.01 10.02 10.03 10.04 10.05 10.06 10.07 10.08 10.09 10.10 10.11 {{cite journal|last1=Benson|first1=RBJ|last2=Campione|first2=NE|last3=Carrano|first3=MT|last4=Mannion|first4=PD|last5=Sullivan|first5=C|last6=Evans|first6=DC|display-authors=et al|year=2014|title=Rates of Dinosaur Body Mass Evolution Indicate 170 Million Years of Sustained Ecological Innovation on the Avian Stem Lineage|journal=PLoS Biol|volume=12|issue=5|page=e1001853|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001853|pmc=4011683|pmid=24802911}
- ^ 11.0 11.1 Mazzetta, Gerardo V.; Christiansen, Per; Fariña, Richard A. Giants and Bizarres: Body Size of Some Southern South American Cretaceous Dinosaurs (PDF). Historical Biology. 2004, 16 (2–4): 71–83 [2008-01-08]. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.694.1650 . doi:10.1080/08912960410001715132. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2009-02-25).
- ^ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Therrien, F.; Henderson, D.M. My theropod is bigger than yours...or not: estimating body size from skull length in theropods. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 2007, 27 (1): 108–115. ISSN 0272-4634. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[108:MTIBTY]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Coria, R.A.; Salgado, L. A new giant carnivorous dinosaur from the Cretaceous of Patagonia.. Nature. 1995, 377 (6546): 225–226. Bibcode:1995Natur.377..224C. doi:10.1038/377224a0.
- ^ dal Sasso, C.; Maganuco, S.; Buffetaut, E.; Mendez, M. A. New information on the skull of the enigmatic theropod Spinosaurus, with remarks on its sizes and affinities. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology (Submitted manuscript). 2005, 25 (4): 888–896. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0888:NIOTSO]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Glut, D.F. The New Dinosaur Dictionary. Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press. 1982: 226–228. ISBN 978-0-8065-0782-8.
- ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Seebacher, F. A new method to calculate allometric length-mass relationships of dinosaurs. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 2001, 21 (1): 51–60. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.462.255 . ISSN 0272-4634. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2001)021[0051:ANMTCA]2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Bates, KT; Manning, PL; Hodgetts, D; Sellers, WI. Estimating Mass Properties of Dinosaurs Using Laser. PLoS ONE. 2009, 4 (2): e4532. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.4532B. PMC 2639725 . PMID 19225569. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004532.
- ^ Currie, Philip J.; Carpenter, Kenneth. A new specimen of Acrocanthosaurus atokensis (Theropoda, Dinosauria) from the Lower Cretaceous Antlers Formation (Lower Cretaceous, Aptian) of Oklahoma, USA. Geodiversitas. 2000, 22 (2): 207–246. (原始內容存檔於2007-11-14).
- ^ Lee, Yuong-Nam; Barsbold, Rinchen; Currie, Philip J.; Kobayashi, Yoshitsugu; Lee, Hang-Jae; Godefroit, Pascal; Escuillié, François; Chinzorig, Tsogtbaatar. Resolving the long-standing enigmas of a giant ornithomimosaur Deinocheirus mirificus. Nature. 2014, 515 (7526): 257–260 [22 October 2014]. Bibcode:2014Natur.515..257L. PMID 25337880. doi:10.1038/nature13874.
- ^ 引用錯誤:沒有為名為
Kellner
的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ Brusatte, S.L.; Chure, D.J.; Benson, R.B.J.; Xu, X. The osteology of Shaochilong maortuensis, a carcharodontosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Asia (PDF). Zootaxa. 2010, 2334: 1–46 [2017-09-01]. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.2334.1.1. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2017-02-04).
- ^ Benson R.B.J.; Carrano M.T; Brusatte S.L. A new clade of archaic large-bodied predatory dinosaurs (Theropoda: Allosauroidea) that survived to the latest Mesozoic. Naturwissenschaften. 2010, 97 (1): 71–78. Bibcode:2010NW.....97...71B. PMID 19826771. doi:10.1007/s00114-009-0614-x.
- ^ Zhang, F.; Zhou, Z.; Xu, X.; Wang, X.; Sullivan, C. A bizarre Jurassic maniraptoran from China with elongate ribbon-like feathers. Nature (Submitted manuscript). 2008, 455 (7216): 1105–8 [2018-09-21]. Bibcode:2008Natur.455.1105Z. PMID 18948955. doi:10.1038/nature07447. (原始內容存檔於2012-02-20).
- ^ Xu, X., Zhao, Q., Norell, M., Sullivan, C., Hone, D., Erickson, G., Wang, X., Han, F. and Guo, Y. (2009). "A new feathered maniraptoran dinosaur fossil that fills a morphological gap in avian origin." Chinese Science Bulletin, 6 pages, accepted November 15, 2008.
- ^ Ji, Q., Ji, S., Lu, J., You, H., Chen, W., Liu, Y., and Liu, Y. (2005). "First avialan bird from China (Jinfengopteryx elegans gen. et sp. nov.)." Geological Bulletin of China, 24(3): 197-205.
- ^ Turner, Alan H.; Pol, Diego; Clarke, Julia A.; Erickson, Gregory M.; Norell, Mark. A basal dromaeosaurid and size evolution preceding avian flight (pdf). Science. 2007, 317: 1378–1381 [2007-09-18]. doi:10.1126/science.1144066. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2010-11-05).
- ^ Yong, Ed. Biggest Dinosaur Ever? Maybe. Maybe Not. – Phenomena. BMC Biology. 18 May 2014, 10: 60 [11 June 2016]. PMC 3403949 . PMID 22781121. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-10-60. (原始內容存檔於5 November 2017).
- ^ Sellers, W. I.; Margetts, L.; Coria, R. A. B.; Manning, P. L. Carrier, David , 編. March of the Titans: The Locomotor Capabilities of Sauropod Dinosaurs. PLoS ONE. 2013, 8 (10): e78733. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...878733S. PMC 3864407 . PMID 24348896. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078733.
- ^ 29.0 29.1 Jianu, Coralia-Maria; Weishampel, David B. The smallest of the largest: a new look at possible dwarfing in sauropod dinosaurs.. Geologie en Mijinbouw. 1999, 78.
- ^ Russell, Dale A.; Zheng, Zhong. A large mamenchisaurid from the Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, People's Republic of China. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 1993, 30 (10): 2082–2095. Bibcode:1993CaJES..30.2082R. doi:10.1139/e93-180.
- ^ 31.0 31.1 Lovelace, David M.; Hartman, Scott A.; Wahl, William R. Morphology of a specimen of Supersaurus (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) from the Morrison Formation of Wyoming, and a re-evaluation of diplodocid phylogeny. Arquivos do Museu Nacional. 2007, 65 (4): 527–544.
- ^ Herne, Matthew C.; Lucas, Spencer G. Seismosaurus hallorum: Osteological reconstruction from the holotype. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. 2006, 36.
- ^ Royo-Torres, R.; Cobos, A.; Alcalá, L. A Giant European Dinosaur and a New Sauropod Clade. Science. 2006, 314 (5807): 1925–1927. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1925R. PMID 17185599. doi:10.1126/science.1132885.
- ^ {{Cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Wen-hao |last2=Zhou |first2=Chang-Fu |last3=Wings |first3=Oliver |last4=Toru |first4=Sekiya |last5=Dong |first5=Zhi-ming |year=2013 |title=A new gigantic sauropod dinosaur from the Middle
- ^ 35.0 35.1 Wedel, Mathew J.; Cifelli, R.L.; Sanders, R..K. Osteology, paleobiology, and relationships of the sauropod dinosaur Sauroposeidon (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 2000, 45: 343–388 [2009-07-27]. (原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2008-07-05).
- ^ 36.0 36.1 Wedel, Mathew J.; Cifelli, Richard L. Sauroposeidon: Oklahoma's Native Giant (PDF). Oklahoma Geology Notes. Summer 2005, 65 (2): 40–57. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2008-09-20).
- ^ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 González Riga, Bernardo J.; Lamanna, Matthew C.; Ortiz David, Leonardo D.; Calvo, Jorge O.; Coria, Juan P. A gigantic new dinosaur from Argentina and the evolution of the sauropod hind foot. Scientific Reports. 2016, 6: 19165. Bibcode:2016NatSR...619165G. PMC 4725985 . PMID 26777391. doi:10.1038/srep19165.
- ^ José L. Carballido; Diego Pol; Alejandro Otero; Ignacio A. Cerda; Leonardo Salgado ; Alberto C. Garrido ; Jahandar Ramezani ; Néstor R. Cúneo ; Javier M. Krause (2017). "A new giant titanosaur sheds light on body mass evolution among sauropod dinosaurs". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 284 (1860): 20171219. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.1219.
- ^ Bates, Karl T.; Falkingham, Peter L.; Macaulay, Sophie; Brassey, Charlotte; Maidment, Susannah C.R. Downsizing a giant: re-evaluating Dreadnoughtus body mass. Biol Lett. 2015, 11 (6): 20150215. PMC 4528471 . PMID 26063751. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2015.0215.
- ^ Burness, G.P.; Flannery, T.; Flannery, T. Dinosaurs, dragons, and dwarfs: The evolution of maximal body size. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2001, 98 (25): 14518–14523. Bibcode:2001PNAS...9814518B. PMC 64714 . PMID 11724953. doi:10.1073/pnas.251548698.
- ^ V. D. Diaz, X. P. Suberpiola, and J. L. Sanz. 2013. Appendicular skeleton and dermal armour of the Late Cretaceous titanosaur Lirainosaurus astibia (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from Spain. Palaeontologia Electronica 16(2):19A
- ^ Stein, K.; Csiki, Z.; Curry Rogers, K.; Weishampel, D.B.; Redelstorff, R.; Carballidoa, J.L.; Sandera, P.M. Small body size and extreme cortical bone remodeling indicate phyletic dwarfism in Magyarosaurus dacus (Sauropoda: Titanosauria). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 20. 2010, 107 (20): 9258–9263. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.9258S. PMC 2889090 . PMID 20435913. doi:10.1073/pnas.1000781107.
- ^ Buffetaut, E.; Suteethorn, V.; Cuny, G.; Tong, H.; Le Loeuff, J.; Khansubha, S.; Jongautchariyakul, S. The earliest known sauropod dinosaur. Nature. 2000, 407 (6800): 72–74. Bibcode:2000Natur.407...72B. PMID 10993074. doi:10.1038/35024060.
- ^ Henderson, Donald. Sauropod Necks: Are They Really for Heat Loss?. PLoS ONE. 2013, 8 (10): e77108. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...877108H. PMC 3812985 . PMID 24204747. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0077108.
- ^ Wilson. J. A. (2006): An Overview of Titanosaur Evolution and Phylogeny. En (Colectivo Arqueológico-Paleontológico Salense, Ed.): Actas de las III Jornadas sobre Dinosaurios y su Entorno. 169-190. Salas de los Infantes, Burgos, España. 169
- ^ Yates, A.M.; Kitching, J.W. The earliest known sauropod dinosaur and the first steps towards sauropod locomotion. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 2003, 270 (1525): 1753–1758. PMC 1691423 . PMID 12965005. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2417.
- ^ Zhao, X.; Li, D.; Han, G.; Hao, H.; Liu, F.; Li, L.; Fang, X. Zhuchengosaurus maximus from Shandong Province. Acta Geoscientia Sinica. 2007, 28 (2): 111–122. doi:10.1007/s10114-005-0808-x.
- ^ Zhao Xijin; Wang Kebai; Li Dunjing. Huaxiaosaurus aigahtens. Geological Bulletin of China. 2011, 30 (11): 1671–1688.
- ^ Glut, Donald F. Shantungosaurus. Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co. 1997: 816–817. ISBN 978-0-89950-917-4.
- ^ Sues, Hans-Dieter. ornithopods. James Orville Farlow; M. K. Brett-Surman (編). The Complete Dinosaur. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 1997: 338. ISBN 978-0-253-33349-0.
- ^ 51.0 51.1 Archived copy (PDF). [2016-06-13]. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2016-03-04).
- ^ Glut, Donald F. Edmontosaurus. Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co. 1997: 389–396. ISBN 978-0-89950-917-4.
- ^ Lambert, David; the Diagram Group. The Dinosaur Data Book. New York: Avon Books. 1990: 60. ISBN 978-0-380-75896-8.
- ^ Naish, Darren; David M. Martill. Ornithopod dinosaurs. Dinosaurs of the Isle of Wight. London: The Palaeontological Association. 2001: 60–132. ISBN 978-0-901702-72-2.
- ^ Dixon, Dougal. The Complete Book of Dinosaurs. London: Anness Publishing Ltd. 2006: 216. ISBN 978-0-681-37578-9.
- ^ Prieto-Márquez, A.; Chiappe, L. M.; Joshi, S. H. Dodson, Peter , 編. The lambeosaurine dinosaur Magnapaulia laticaudus from the Late Cretaceous of Baja California, Northwestern Mexico. PLoS ONE. 2012, 7 (6): e38207. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...738207P. PMC 3373519 . PMID 22719869. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038207.
- ^ Glut, Donald F. Saurolophus. Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co. 1997: 788–789. ISBN 978-0-89950-917-4.
- ^ Horner, John R.; Weishampel, David B.; Forster, Catherine A. Hadrosauridae. Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; Osmólska, Halszka (編). The Dinosauria 2nd. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2004: 438–463. ISBN 978-0-520-24209-8.
- ^ Paul, Gregory S. (1997). "Dinosaur models: the good, the bad, and using them to estimate the mass of dinosaurs". Dinofest International 1997: 129–154.
- ^ Glut, Donald F. Anatotitan. Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co. 1997: 132–134. ISBN 978-0-89950-917-4.
- ^ Paul, Greg. The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 2010: 335.
- ^ Glut, Donald F. Iguanodon. Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia.. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co. 1997: 490–500. ISBN 978-0-89950-917-4.
- ^ Glut, Donald F. Parasaurolophus. Dinosaurs: The Encyclopedia. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co. 1997: 678–684. ISBN 978-0-89950-917-4.
- ^ Bakker, R. T. 1980. Dinosaur heresy-dinosaur renaissance; pp. 351-462 in R. D. K. Thomas and E. C. Olson (eds.), A Cold Look at the Warm-blooded Dinosaurs. AAAS Selected Symposia Series No. 28.
- ^ Lehman, T.M. A Gigantic Skull and Skeleton of the Horned Dinosaur Pentaceratops sternbergi from New Mexico. Journal of Paleontology. 1998, 72 (5): 894–906. doi:10.1017/s0022336000027220.
- ^ Butler, R.J. and Zhao, Q. "The small-bodied ornithischian dinosaurs Micropachycephalosaurus hongtuyanensis and Wannanosaurus yansiensis from the Late Cretaceous of China." Cretaceous Research, Corrected Proof, Available online 8 April 2008 doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2008.03.002
- ^ Carpenter, Kenneth; Bartlett, Jeff; Bird, John; Barrick, Reese. Ankylosaurs from the Price River Quarries, Cedar Mountain Formation (Lower Cretaceous), east-central Utah. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 2008, 28 (4): 1089–1101. doi:10.1671/0272-4634-28.4.1089.
- ^ Galton, Peter M.; Upchurch, Paul, 2004, "Stegosauria" In: Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.): The Dinosauria, 2nd edition, Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 344-345
- ^ Carpenter, K. Redescription of Ankylosaurus magniventris Brown 1908 (Ankylosauridae) from the Upper Cretaceous of the Western Interior of North America. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 2004, 41 (8): 961–986. Bibcode:2004CaJES..41..961C. doi:10.1139/e04-043.
- ^ Arbour. V.M.; Mallon, J.C. Unusual cranial and postcranial anatomy in the archetypal ankylosaur Ankylosaurus magniventris. FACETS. 2017, 2 (2): 764–794. doi:10.1139/facets-2017-0063.
- (英文)Gregory S. Paul. Dinosaur models: the good, the bad, and using them to estimate the mass of dinosaurs. Dinofest International. 1997, 1997: 129–154.