種族滅絕式強姦
種族滅絕 |
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分類 |
強姦 |
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種類 |
影響和動機 |
各國情況 |
戰爭時期 |
法律 |
相關 |
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種族滅絕式強姦,指在戰時或和平時期針對敵方或某特定族群展開的大規模強姦行為,並以此作為種族滅絕行動的一部分的行為[1]。在歷史當中經常發生,例如孟加拉國解放戰爭[2][3][4][5]、南斯拉夫內戰和盧旺達大屠殺[3][6]等期間,大規模的強姦行為成為戰爭的重要組成部分,也因此讓種族滅絕式強姦這一概念受到國際社會廣泛關注。[7]印巴分治里針對女性的暴力行為也被引用為種族滅絕式強姦的一起典型案例。[8]
儘管戰爭時期的性暴力在漫長歷史里的無數次衝突中顯現出其反覆性與周期性,但它通常也只被看作是戰爭的副產品,而不是軍事作戰策略的一部分。[9]
爭論
一些學者認為防止及懲治滅絕種族罪公約應聲明大規模的強姦屬於種族滅絕罪的範疇。[10] 其他學者認為,種族滅絕式強姦屬於公約在其第二章內為種族滅絕所下之定義。[7][11]凱瑟琳·麥金儂認為,種族滅絕式強姦的受害者是種族全體的代難者,強姦充當了滅族的工具,而施害者的目的是摧毀整個目標種族。[12]
西奧班·費希爾認為,強制懷孕,而非強姦本身才能構成種族滅絕。她說:「輪姦本身『只能』是強姦,但如果有使其受精懷孕的意圖那麼就不那麼簡單了。」[2][13]莉薩·莎拉赫認為公約之定義太為狹隘,因為大規模強姦不應只根據被強姦者是否被迫懷孕來進行界定其是否為種族滅絕。[2]
作為種族滅絕的強姦行為
大赦國際認為,戰時的強姦行為並不是戰爭與衝突的副產品,而是一項預先計劃與蓄意實施的軍事策略。[14]在二十世紀的最後二十五年裡,世界上的主要衝突已由國家間戰爭轉變為群體暴力事件和內戰。在這些衝突中,國家行為體和非國家行為體以強姦作為武器來傷害平民的行為越來越頻繁。記者和人權組織記錄了大量的種族滅絕式的強姦運動。前南斯拉夫、塞拉利昂、盧旺達、利比里亞、蘇丹、烏干達境內的各起衝突和剛果民主共和國內戰皆有出現。這些大規模屠殺的戰略目的有兩個。第一點是面向平民灌輸恐怖的情緒,使人們放棄財產而逃離。第二點是通過使目標族群蒙羞受辱以削弱其復興民族重建家園的可能。這兩點對非國家行為體具有戰略作用,因為將目標種族從土地上移除是實現種族滅絕計劃的關鍵部分。是故,鑑於施害者的目的是摧毀或強制遷離目標種族,並確保他們不會回歸,強姦對於包含種族滅絕和種族清洗的運動十分適合。[15]種族滅絕式強姦的目標之一是強制懷孕,由此,侵略者不僅侵略了目標種族的土地,也侵略了他們的血統和家庭。而無法生育的女性則同樣被用來實施性侵犯,作為侵略者的洩慾工具。從小女孩到八十歲的老嫗都有可能成為受害者。[16]
參考文獻
- ^ Totten & Bartrop 2007,第159–160頁.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Sharlach 2000,第92–93頁.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Sajjad 2012,第225頁.
- ^ Ghadbian 2002,第111頁.
- ^ Mookherjee 2012,第68頁.
- ^ Sharlach 2000,第90頁.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Miller 2009,第53頁.
- ^ Brass, Paul R. The partition of India and retributive genocide in the Punjab, 1946-47: Means, methods, and purposes 1. Journal of Genocide Research. 2003-03, 5 (1): 70-101 [2022-11-01]. ISSN 1462-3528. doi:10.1080/14623520305657. (原始內容存檔於2022-07-01) (英語).
- ^ Fisher 1996,第91–133頁.
- ^ Sharlach 2000,第89–102頁.
- ^ Totten & Bartrop 2007,第159頁.
- ^ MacKinnon 2006,第209–233頁.
- ^ Bisaz 2012,第90–91頁.
- ^ Smith-Spark 2012.
- ^ Leaning, Bartels & Mowafi 2009,第174頁.
- ^ Smith 2013,第94頁.
書目
- Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare: The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. University of Minnesota Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0816628186.
- Bisaz, Corsin. The Concept of Group Rights in International Law: Groups as Contested Right-Holders, Subjects and Legal Persons. Martinus Nijhoff. 2012. ISBN 978-9004228702.
- Brownmiller, Susan. Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape. Simon & Schuster. 1975. ISBN 0-449-90820-8.
- Card, Claudia. The Paradox of Genocidal Rape Aimed at Enforced Pregnancy. The Southern Journal of Philosophy. 2008-03, 46 (S1) [2022-11-01]. doi:10.1111/j.2041-6962.2008.tb00162.x. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-01) (英語).
- De Brouwer, Anne-Marie. Introduction. Anne-Marie De Brouwer, Sandra Ka Hon Chu (編). The Men Who Killed Me: Rwandan Survivors of Sexual Violence. Douglas & McIntyre. 2010. ISBN 978-1553653103.
- Eftekhari, Shiva. Rwanda, Struggling to Survive: Barriers to Justice for Rape Victims in Rwanda. Human Rights Watch. 2004.
- Fielding, Leila. Female Génocidaires: What was the Nature and Motivations for Hutu Female. GRIN Verlag. 2012. ISBN 978-3656324409.
- Fisher, Siobhán K. Occupation of the Womb: Forced Impregnation as Genocide. Duke Law Journal. 1996, 46 (1) [2022-11-01]. ISSN 0012-7086. JSTOR 1372967. doi:10.2307/1372967. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-01).
- Joeden-Forgey, Elisa Von. Gender and Genocide. Donald Bloxham, A. Dirk Moses (編). The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies. Oxford University Press. 2010. ISBN 978-0199232116.
- Jones, Adam. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Routledge. 2006. ISBN 978-0415353847.
- Leaning, Jennifer; Bartels, Susan; Mowafi, Hani. Sexual Violence during War and Forced Migration. Susan Forbes Martin, John Tirman (編). Women, Migration, and Conflict: Breaking a Deadly Cycle. Springer. 2009: 173–199. ISBN 978-9048128242.
- Miller, Sarah Clark. Atrocity, Harm, and resistance. Andrea Veltman, Kathryn Norlock (編). Evil, Political Violence, and Forgiveness: Essays in Honor of Claudia Card. Lexington. 2009: 53–76. ISBN 978-0739136508.
- MacKinnon, Catherine A. Genocide Rape Is Different Than War Rape. Center on Law & Globalization. 2006 [2018-07-07]. (原始內容存檔於2014-03-22).
- Poloni-Staudinger, Lori; Ortbals, Candice D. Rape as a Weapon of War and Genocide. Terrorism and Violent Conflict: Women's Agency, Leadership, and Responses. Springer. 2012. ISBN 978-1461456407.
- Rothe, Dawn. State Criminality: The Crime of All Crimes. Lexington. 2009. ISBN 978-0739126721.
- Russell-Brown, Sherrie L. Rape as an Act of Genocide. Berkeley Journal of International Law. 2003, 21 (2) [2018-07-07]. (原始內容存檔於2017-09-03).
- Sajjad, Tazreena. The Post-Genocidal Period and its Impact on Women. Samuel Totten (編). Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide Reprint. Transaction. 2012: 219–248. ISBN 978-1412847599.
- Sharlach, Lisa. Rape as Genocide: Bangladesh, the Former Yugoslavia, and Rwanda. New Political Science. 2000-03, 22 (1): 89–102 [2022-11-01]. ISSN 0739-3148. doi:10.1080/713687893. (原始內容存檔於2022-11-01) (英語).
- Smith, Roger W. Genocide and the Politics of Rape. Joyce Apsel, Ernesto Verdeja (編). Genocide Matters: Ongoing Issues and Emerging Perspectives. Routledge. 2013: 82–105. ISBN 978-0415814966.
- Smith-Spark, Laura. How did rape become a weapon of war?. British Broadcasting Corporation. 8 December 2004 [29 December 2013]. (原始內容存檔於2020-11-15).
- Totten, Samuel; Bartrop, Paul R. Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood. 2007. ISBN 978-0313329678.
- Vetlesen, Arne Johan. Evil and Human Agency: Understanding Collective Evildoing. Cambridge University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0521673570.