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坐标50°04′42″N 14°19′10″E / 50.07833°N 14.31944°E / 50.07833; 14.31944
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历史

1848年的法蘭克福議會

In the area of the Römer, Roman settlements were established, probably in the first century; some artifacts from that era are found to this ddday. The city district Bonames has a name probably dating back to Roman times — it is thought to be derived from bona me(n)sa. Nida (Heddernheim) was also a Roman civitas capital.

The name of Frankfurt on the 美因河 is derived from the Franconofurt of the Germanic tribe of the Franks; Furt (cf. 英語 淺灘) denotes a low point passage across a stream or river. Alemanni and Franks lived there and by 794 Charlemagne presided over an imperial assembly and church synod, at which Franconofurd (-furt -vurd) is first mentioned.

神聖羅馬帝國境內,法蘭克福是其中一個最重要的城市。由公元855年起,德國的國王和皇帝都在法蘭克福被推舉出,並在亞琛加冕。由1562年起國王和皇帝改為同時在法蘭克福被推舉和加冕,第一個在法蘭克福被加冕的皇帝是馬克西米利安二世。這個傳統在1792年弗朗茨二世就任時終於完結。他於7月14日巴士底日,這個紀念巴黎人民佔領巴斯第監獄的一日被加冕。推舉的程序和加冕儀式都在聖巴多羅買大教堂,亦稱Kaiserdom (英語: 皇帝大教堂)舉行。

The Frankfurter Messe (en: Frankfurt trade fair) was first mentioned in 1150. In 1240, Emperor Friedrich II granted an Imperial privilege to its visitors, meaning they would be protected by the Empire. Since 1478 book trade fairs have been held in Frankfurt, the Frankfurter Buchmesse being still the most important in Germany and, some might say, the world.

1372年法蘭克福成為了Reichsstadt (英語:帝國自由城市),直轄於神聖羅馬帝國皇帝,不屬於該區的統治者或貴族管轄。

法蘭克福在三十年戰爭之中維持中立,但難民的湧入卻令法蘭克福爆發鼠疫。在戰爭結束後,法蘭克福重新拿到了財富。

In the Napoleonic Wars Frankfurt was occupied or cannonaded several times by French troops. It nevertheless still remained a free city until the total collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805/6. In 1806 it become part of the principality of Aschaffenburg under the Fürstprimas ('Prince-Primate', 25 July 1806 – 19 October 1813: Karl Theodor Anton Maria Kämmerer von Worms, Reichsfreiherr von Dalberg (b. 1744 – d. 1817), 1803–1806 Prince-archbishop of Regensburg). This also meant, that Frankfurt was incorporated into the confederation of the Rhine. In 1810 Dalberg adopted the title of a Grand Duke of Frankfurt. Napoleon intended to make his adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais, already prince de Venise ("prince of Venice", a newly established primogeniture in Italy) Grand Duke of Frankfurt after Dalberg's death (since the latter as a Catholic bishop didn't have legitimate heirs). The Grand Duchy remained a short episode lasting from 1810 to 1813, when military tide turned in favor of the Anglo-Prussian lead allies, which turns over the Napoleonic order of central Europe. Dalberg abdicated in favor of Eugène de Beauharnais, which of course was only a symbolic action, as the latter effectively never did rule after the ruin of the French armies and Frankfurt being taken by the allies.

After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, the Congress of Vienna (1812-1815, redrawing the map of Europe) dissolved the grand-duchy, and Frankfurt entered the newly founded German Confederation (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of its Bundestag, the confederal parliament where the nominally presiding Habsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian "presidential envoy".

After the ill-fated revolution of 1848, Frankfurt was home to the first German National Assembly (Nationalversammlung), which resided in St. Paul's Church (Paulskirche) (see German Confederation for details) and was opened on 18 May 1848. The institution failed in 1849 when the Prussian king declared that he would not accept "a crown from the gutter". In the year of its existence, the assembly developed a common constitution for a unified Germany, with the Prussian king as its monarch.

Frankfurt lost its independence after 普奧戰爭 as Prussia annexed in 1866 several smaller states, among them the free city of Frankfurt. The Prussian administration incorporated Frankfurt into its province of Hesse-Nassau. The formerly independent towns of Bornheim and Bockenheim were incorporated in 1890.

In 1914 the citizens of Frankfurt founded the University of Frankfurt, later called Johann Wolfgang Goethe University. This is the only civic foundation of a university in Germany; today it is one of Germany's largest universities.

After World War I Frankfurt was occupied by French troops as a means of reprisal, because the French found the German side guilty of having violated in some details the clauses of the peace treaty of Versailles concerning the demilitarisation of the Rhineland.Template:Request quote In 1924 Ludwig Landmann became the first Jewish Mayor of the city, and led a significant expansion during the following years. However, during the Nazi era, the synagogues of Frankfurt were destroyed.

The city of Frankfurt was severely bombed in World War II. About 5,500 residents were killed during the raids, and the once famous medieval city centre, by that time the largest in Germany, was destroyed. The reconstruction after the war took place in an (often-simple) modern style, thus irrevocably changing the architectural face of Frankfurt. Only very few landmark buildings have been reconstructed historically, albeit in a simplified manner.

After the end of the war Frankfurt became a part of the newly founded state of Hesse, consisting of the old Hesse-(Darmstadt) and the Prussian Hesse provinces. The city was part of the American administered zone of Germany. The Military Governor for the United States Zone (1945-1949) and the United States High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG) (1949-1952) had their headquarters in the IG Farben Building, intentionally left undamaged by the Allies' wartime bombardment. Frankfurt was the original choice for the provisional capital of West Germany — they even went as far as constructing a new parliament building that has never been used for its intended purpose, and is now a TV studio. In the end, Konrad Adenauer (the first post-war Chancellor) preferred the tiny city of Bonn, for the most part because it was close to his hometown, but also for another reason; many other prominent politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that Frankfurt, one of the largest German cities, and a former centre of the old German-dominated Holy Roman Empire, would be accepted as a "permanent" capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for reunification and the eventual return of the capital city to Berlin.

Population

Frankfurt is a multicultural city. Most immigrants are from Turkey, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy, Spain, North-African countries, Iran, Lebanon, and the United States. The Frankfurt Area is also home to the (now 2nd) largest Korean community in Europe. 180 different nationalities reside in Frankfurt.

For a long time Frankfurt was a Protestant-dominated city. However, during the 19th century an increasing number of Catholics moved to the city. Today a narrow plurality of citizens are Catholic. Frankfurt has the second largest Jewish community (after Berlin) in Germany.


白山戰役
三十年戰爭的一部分
白山戰役
約翰·蒂利率領天主教聯軍於白山戰役取得決定性勝利。
日期1620年11月8日
地点
布拉格附近的白山地區
结果 神聖羅馬帝國斐迪南二世取得決定性勝利
参战方
波希米亞貴族 神圣罗马帝国 神聖羅馬帝國
西班牙 西班牙
天主教同盟
指挥官与领导者
安哈爾特-貝恩堡的克里斯蒂安一世
英德日赫·馬加什·圖恩
比誇伯爵查理·文德
蒂利伯爵
兵力
30,000人
(軍隊主要來自波希米亞、德意志地區、匈牙利和奧地利人的雇傭兵)
27,000人
(軍隊主要來自神聖羅馬帝國、天主教同盟、西班牙、西屬尼德蘭波蘭輕騎兵
伤亡与损失
4,000人傷亡[1] 700人傷亡[1]

Template:Campaignbox Thirty Years' War Bohemian Revolt

白山戰役發生於1620年11月8日,是三十年戰爭中較早的一場戰役。 The Battle of White Mountain, 8 November 1620 (Bílá hora is the name of White Mountain in Czech) was an early battle in the Thirty Years' War in which an army of 30,000 Bohemians and mercenaries under Christian of Anhalt were routed by 27,000 men of the combined armies of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor under Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy and the German Catholic League under Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly at Bílá Hora, near Prague (now part of the city).[2] The battle marked the end of the Bohemian period of the Thirty Years' War.

Prelude

In the early 17th Century most of the Bohemian estates, though under the dominion of the Catholic Holy Roman Empire, had large Protestant populations, and had been granted rights and protections allowing them varying degrees of religious and political freedom. In 1617, as Emperor Matthias lay dying, his cousin Ferdinand - a fiercely devout Catholic and proponent of the Counter-reformation - was named his successor as Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. This led to deep consternation among many Bohemian Protestants, who feared not only the loss of their religious freedom, but also of their traditional semi-autonomy, under which many of the estates had separate, individual constitutions governing their relationship with the Empire.[3]

Ferdinand (who would become Emperor Ferdinand II following Matthias' death in 1619) saw Protestantism as inimical to the Empire, and wanted to impose standardized, centralized rule on Bohemia while forcefully encouraging conversion to the Catholic faith. He also hoped to reclaim church properties which had been seized by Protestants at the start of the Reformation decades earlier, and to do away with the Electorate - the body of noblemen, both Catholic and Protestant, which had considerable power over Imperial policy.

Particularly galling to Protestants were perceived violations of Emperor Rudolf II's 1609 Letter of Majesty, which had ensured religious freedom throughout Bohemia.[4] Wanting to air their grievances over this and other issues, a group of Bohemian nobles met with representatives of the Emperor at the royal castle in Prague in May, 1618; the meeting ended with two of the representatives and their scribe being thrown out a high window and seriously injured. This incident - the so-called Second Defenestration of Prague - triggered the Bohemian Revolt.[5]

In November 1619, Elector Palatine Frederick V - like many of the rebels, a Calvinist - was named King of Bohemia by the Bohemian Electorate.

Battle

In 1620, now fully established as Emperor, Ferdinand II set out to reclaim his Bohemian lands and make an example of the rebels. King Frederick and his military commander, Prince Christian of Anhalt, had organized a Protestant army of 30,000 men; Ferdinand countered with a force of 25,000, many of them seasoned soldiers, under the expert leadership of Field Marshal Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, a Catholic Spanish-Flemish nobleman. Tilly's force was made up of two distinct groups: Imperial troops commanded by Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy, and soldiers of the German Catholic League, directly under Tilly. Both Catholic and Protestant armies employed numerous mercenaries - including, by some definitions, Tilly himself. Serving with the Catholic League as an official observer was the future "father of modern philosophy", René Descartes.

After pacifying most of western Bohemia, the Imperial-Catholic army made for Prague, the Bohemian capital, then in rebel hands. The Bohemians attempted to block them by setting up defensive positions, which the Imperial army simply bypassed. Force-marching his men, Christian of Anhalt managed to get ahead of the Imperial army just before Prague. They gained an advantageous position on White Mountain (actually a low plateau), but had little time to set up defensive works. Enthusiasm for battle was low on both sides. After the reverses of the previous several weeks, Christian of Anhalt's army had been reduced to about 15,000 men, with little prospect of victory; mercenaries on both sides had not been paid in months; and with Winter approaching, cold, wet weather made for less than ideal combat conditions.

On November 8th a small Catholic force was sent to probe the Protestant flank. To their surprise, the Bohemians retreated at their advance. Tilly quickly sent in reinforcements, and the Bohemian flank began to crumble. Anhalt tried to retrieve the situation by sending forward infantry and cavalry led by his son, Christian II. The cavalry charged into the Imperial infantry, causing significant casualties, but Tilly countered with his own cavalry, forcing the Bohemian horsemen to retire. The Bohemian infantry, who were only now approaching the Imperial army, saw the cavalry retreating, at which they fired one volley at extreme range before retreating themselves. A small group of Imperial cavalry began circling the Protestant forces, driving them to the middle of the battlefield. With the Bohemian army already demoralized, company after company began retreating, most without having actually entered the battle. Tilly and his Imperial cavalrymen advanced with 2,000 Bavarian hussars, steadily pushing Protestant forces back to the Star Palace (just west of Prague), where the rebels tried without success to establish a line of defense.

The Battle of White Mountain was more a skirmish than a full-fledged battle. The Bohemian army was no match for King Ferdinand's troops. The actual battle lasted only an hour and left the Bohemian army in tatters. Some 4,000 Protestants were killed or captured, while Catholic losses amounted to roughly 700.[6]

Aftermath

影響

白山戰役紀念碑
The 27 tributary crosses.

With the Bohemian army destroyed, Tilly entered Prague and the revolt collapsed. King Frederick with his wife Elizabeth fled the country (hence his nickname the Winter King), and many citizens welcomed the restoration of Catholicism. Forty-seven noble leaders of the insurrection were tried, and twenty-seven were executed on what is called "the Day of Blood" by Protestants at Prague's Old Town Square. Amongst those executed were Kryštof Harant and Jan Jesenius. Today, 27 crosses have been inlaid in the cobblestone as a tribute to those victims. An estimated five-sixths of the Bohemian nobility went into exile soon after the Battle of White Mountain, and their properties were confiscated.[7] Before the war about 151,000 farmsteads existed in the Lands of Bohemian Crown, while only 50,000 remained after the year 1648. The number of inhabitants decreased from 3 million to 800,000.[8] The Thirty Years War had still another 28 years to run, and Bohemia was often the scene of much bloodshed.

But there was still a strong Protestant army in Silesia under the command of Johann Georg of Hohenzollern, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf which continued fighting the Imperial army in Moravia and in what today is Slovakia until 1623.

In 1621, the Emperor ordered all Calvinists and other non-Lutherans to leave the realm in 3 days or to convert to Catholicism. Next year, he also ordered all Lutherans (who primarily had not been involved in the revolt) to convert or leave the country. By 1627, Archbishop Harrach of Prague and Jaroslav Borzita of Martinice set out to peacefully convert the heretics as they were termed; most Bohemians converted, but a significant Protestant minority remained. Spanish troops, seeking to encircle their rebellious Dutch provinces, seized the Palatinate electoral lands. With the prospect of Protestantism being overrun in Germany, Denmark entered the struggle. Sweden was to join the Protestant forces in 1630.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 Bílá Hora., Ottův slovník naučný (1888-1909) a Ottův slovník naučný nové doby (1930-1943). (in Czech)
  2. ^ The Battle of White Mountain, 11-06-2003 - Radio Prague
  3. ^ Johnson, Lonnie. Central Europe enemies, neighbours, friends. New York: Oxford UP, 1996. Print.
  4. ^ Helfferich, Tryntje. The Thirty Years War: A Documentary History. Indianapolis: Hackett Company, Inc., 2009. Print.
  5. ^ Guthrie, William P. Battles of the Thirty Years War from White Mountain to Nordlingen, 1618-1635. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001. Print.
  6. ^ Guthrie, William P. Battles of the Thirty Years War from White Mountain to Nordlingen, 1618-1635. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001. Print.
  7. ^ Consequences of Czech Defeat, U.S. Library of Congress
  8. ^ The Kingdom of Bohemia during the Thirty Years´ War

參考資料

50°04′42″N 14°19′10″E / 50.07833°N 14.31944°E / 50.07833; 14.31944

梅克倫堡-什未林公國
Herzogtum Mecklenburg-Schwerin
1701年—1815年
梅克倫堡-什未林国旗
国旗
梅克倫堡-什未林国徽
国徽
梅克倫堡-什未林
梅克倫堡-什未林
地位
首都什未林
政府君主國
公爵 
• 1701年–1713年
弗里德里希·威廉
• 1713年–1728年
卡爾·利奧波德
• 1728年–1756年
克里斯蒂安·路德維希二世
• 1756年–1785年
弗里德里希二世
• 1785年–1815年
弗里德里希·法蘭茲一世
历史 
• 漢堡條約
1701年
• 升格為大公國
1815年
前身
继承
梅克倫堡
梅克倫堡-什未林大公國
今属于 德国

梅克倫堡-什未林是1701年於德國北部建立起的一個公國,由弗里德里希·威廉阿道夫·弗里德里希二世分裂原梅克倫堡公國分別為什未林施特雷利茨兩部分而成。公國一直由尼克洛特後裔的梅克倫堡王室統治,多個世紀以來公國都只是神聖羅馬帝國波羅的海沿岸的一個窮困邦國,was a duchy in northern Germany created in , when Frederick William and Adolphus Frederick II divided the Duchy of Mecklenburg between Schwerin and Strelitz. Ruled by the successors of the Nikloting House of Mecklenburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin remained a relatively poor state of the Holy Roman Empire along the Baltic Sea littoral between Holstein-Glückstadt and Duchy of Pomerania.

起源

The dynasty's progenitor, Niklot (1090–1160), was a chief of the Slavic Obotrite tribal federation, who fought against the advancing Saxons and was finally defeated in 1160 by Henry the Lion in the course of the Wendish Crusade. Niklot's son, Pribislav, submitted himself to Henry, and in 1167 came into his paternal inheritance as the first Prince of Mecklenburg.

After several divisions among Pribislav's descendants, Henry II of Mecklenburg (1266–1329) until 1312 acquired the lordships of Stargard and Rostock, and bequeathed the reunified Mecklenburg lands – except the County of Schwerin and Werle – to his sons, Albert II and John. After they both had received the ducal title, the former lordship of Stargard was recreated as the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Stargard for John in 1352. Albert II retained the larger western part of Mecklenburg, and after he acquired the former County of Schwerin in 1358, he made Schwerin his residence.

In 1363 Albert's son, Duke Albert III, campaigned in Sweden, where he was crowned king one year later. In 1436, William, the last Lord of Werle, died without a male heir. Because William's son-in-law, Ulric II of Mecklenburg-Stargard, had no issue, his line became extinct upon Ulric's death in 1471. All possessions fell back to Duke Henry IV of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, who was then the sole ruler over all of Mecklenburg.

In 1520 Henry's grandsons, Henry V and Albert VII, again divided the duchy, creating the subdivision of Mecklenburg-Güstrow, which Duke Adolf Frederick I of Mecklenburg-Schwerin inherited in 1610. In a second partition of 1621, he granted Güstrow to his brother, John Albert II. Both were deposed in 1628 by Albrecht von Wallenstein, as they had supported Christian IV of Denmark in the Thirty Years' War. Nevertheless, the Swedish Empire forced their restoration three years later. When John Albert II's son, Duke Gustav Adolph, died without male heirs in 1695, Mecklenburg was reunited once more under Frederick William.

History

In June 1692, when Christian Louis I died in exile and without sons, a dispute arose about the succession to his duchy between his brother, Adolphus Frederick II, and his nephew, Frederick William. The emperor and the rulers of Kingdom of Sweden and of Electorate of Brandenburg took part in this struggle, which was intensified three years later, when on the death of Gustav Adolph, the family ruling over Mecklenburg-Güstrow became extinct. In 1701, with the endorsement of the Imperial state of the Lower Saxon Circle, the Treaty of Hamburg was signed and the final division of the country was made. Mecklenburg was divided between the two claimants. The Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin was given to Frederick William, and the Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, roughly a recreation of the medieval Stargard lordship, to Adolphus Frederick II. At the same time, the principle of primogeniture was reasserted, and the right of summoning the joint Landtag was reserved to the ruler of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Continued conflicts and partitions weakened the rule of the dukes and affirmed the reputation of Mecklenburg as one of the most backward territories of the Empire.

Mecklenburg-Schwerin began its existence during a series of constitutional struggles between the duke and the nobles. The heavy debt incurred by Karl Leopold, who had joined Russian Empire in a war against Kingdom of Sweden, brought matters to a crisis; Charles VI interfered, and in 1728 the imperial court of justice declared the duke incapable of governing. His brother, Christian Ludwig II, was appointed administrator of the duchy. Under this prince, who became ruler de jure in 1747, the Convention of Rostock, by which a new constitution was framed for the duchy, was signed in April 1755. By this instrument, all power was in the hands of the duke, the nobles, and the upper classes generally; the lower classes were entirely unrepresented. During the Seven Years' War, Frederick II took up a hostile attitude towards Frederick the Great, and in consequence Mecklenburg-Schwerin was occupied by the Kingdom of Prussia. In other ways his rule was beneficial to the country. In the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars, Frederick Francis I remained neutral, and in 1803 he regained Wismar from Kingdom of Sweden. In 1806 the land was overrun by the First French Empire, and in 1808 he joined the Confederation of the Rhine. He was the first member of the confederation to abandon Napoleon, to whose armies he had sent a contingent, and in 1813–1814 he fought against France.

Aftermath

With the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Frederick Francis I of Mecklenburg-Schwerin received the title of Grand Duke. After the fall of the monarchies in 1918 resulting from World War I, the Grand Duchy became the Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. On 1 January 1934 it was united with the neighbouring Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (both today part of the Bundesland Mecklenburg-Vorpommern).

參考條目

Public Domain 本条目包含来自公有领域出版物的文本: Chisholm, Hugh (编). Encyclopædia Britannica (第11版). London: Cambridge University Press. 1911.  Template:Lower Saxon Circle

巴伐利亞選候國
Kurfürstentum Bayern
1623年—1806年
巴伐利亞国旗
国旗
巴伐利亞国徽
国徽
Bavaria highlighted on a map of the Holy Roman Empire in 1648
Bavaria highlighted on a map of the Holy Roman Empire in 1648
地位神圣罗马帝国诸侯国表达式错误:无法识别标点符号“年”。
首都Munich
政府絕對君主制
Elector of Bavaria 
• 1623-1651
Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria
• 1651-1679
Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria
• 1679-1726
Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria
• 1726-1745
Karl Albrecht, Elector of Bavaria
• 1745-1777
Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria
• 1777-1799
Karl Theodor, Elector of Bavaria
• 1799-1805
Maximilian IV Joseph, Elector of Bavaria
历史时期近代史
• 獲得選帝候身份
1623年
• 簽訂西發里亞和約
1648年
• Put under Imperial Ban
1706
• Imperial Ban reversed
1714

1777
• Raised to kingdom
1806年
前身
继承
Duchy of Bavaria
Kingdom of Bavaria

The Electorate of Bavaria (德語:Kurfürstentum Bayern) was an independent hereditary electorate of the Holy Roman Empire from 1623 to 1806, when it was succeeded by the Kingdom of Bavaria.[1]

The Wittelsbach dynasty which ruled the Duchy of Bavaria was the younger branch of the family which also ruled the Electorate of the Palatinate. The head of the elder branch was one of the seven prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire according to the Golden Bull of 1356, but Bavaria was excluded from the electoral dignity. In 1621, the Elector Palatine Frederick V was put under the imperial ban for his role in the Bohemian Revolt against Emperor Ferdinand II, and the electoral dignity and territory of the Upper Palatinate was conferred upon his loyal cousin, Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria. Although the Peace of Westphalia would create a new electoral title for Frederick V's son, with the exception of a brief period during the War of the Spanish Succession, Maximilian's descendants would continue to hold the original electoral dignity until the extinction of his line in 1777. At that point the two lines were joined in personal union until the end of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1805, after the Peace of Pressburg, the then-elector, Maximilian Joseph, raised himself to the dignity of King of Bavaria, and the Holy Roman Empire was abolished the next year.

1

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  1. ^ Otto Von Pivka. Napoleon's German Allies. Osprey Publishing. November 1980: 3– [4 July 2012]. ISBN 978-0-85045-373-7.