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维基百科，自由的百科全书
新加坡:给排水现状概述
The flag of Singapore
数据
改良水覆盖率 100% (2012) [1]
改良卫生设施覆盖率 100% (2012) [1]
连续供给程度(%) 100
城市人均每日用水量(每人/每天/每升) 148 (2016) [2][3]
城市人均生活用水水费与排污费(每立方米) US$1.88 [4]
水费分户计量实施范围 100%
给排水工程年均总投资 6.9亿美元(2010),或每人每年117美元 [5]
Institutions
国家水资源管理机构 公用事业局(PUB)[6]
国家水资源管理部门 环境及水资源部
城区供水商数量 1 [7]

概述

新加坡给水排水工程的建设因其在复杂的国内环境下仍做到了高效、高质，给水排水实现了高普及，而备受瞩目。从再生水的再利用到城市集雨区的建设，从淡水资源的精细化管理到海水淡化工程的逐步推广。为了减少对邻国马来西亚淡水进口的过度依赖，新加坡有关单位和企业提出了一系列富有创造性与瞻前性的节水、储水措施。

然而，新加坡在节水方面的努力不仅仅局限于工业设备的不断革新，也同样看重在水务方面的立法执法、公共教育、科研开发的发展。[8] 2007年，新加坡公用事业局（PUB）因其在水资源管理上的优秀表现而获得了斯德哥尔摩工业水奖。[9]

水资源概况

新加坡地处热带，降雨量充沛，年均降水量可达2400mm, 远高于国际平均水平——1050mm，但却属于水源性水资源缺乏国家。由于狭小的国土面积与极低的海拔，新加坡境内河流短促、无良好的地下含水层，天然水资源十分有限，水资源调蓄能力较差。同时由于极大的人口密度——仅次于摩洛哥，人均水资源量仅为211m³，位于世界倒数第二。根据新加坡政府2011年统计数据，目前新加坡常住人口已达518万人[10]。每天用水量约136万m³。虽然总和生育率一直处于低水平，但随着移民人数的变化，如何为越来越多的国民提供清洁用水是新加坡政府密切关注的问题之一。为保持国家的经济繁荣, 使国内的社会经济稳步增长，新加坡政府把水资源视为国家存亡的命脉。[11] 新加坡早期的移民多聚集在中南部的新加坡河出海口一带，其他地区则大多是热带雨林或农业用地；除了少数的自然保护区之外，新加坡基本上都已城市化。

给水工程

经过40年的发展，新加坡建立起规模庞大且技术先进的环保产业，并建立了多元化的可持续性供水系统，即“国家四大水喉”—— 集水区的水源、进口食水、新生水和淡化海水。 “国家四大水喉”战略旨在通过提高其他三项供水水量比重从而减轻新加坡对马来西亚水出口的依赖。自2011年以来，新加坡对淡水资源的需求量已经达到了3.80亿加仑，即1700000m³每天，在不考虑连年降水量较低的情况下，早在2011年，新加坡便实际已完成了国内水资源的自给自足。 为保证饮用水水源地不受生活污水、工业废水以及其他污染源的影响，在新加坡狭小的国土面积上，水利开发与土地资源规划管理联系紧密。同时，国家给水排水与雨水收集管网与设施的布设也仅由一个国家部门——公共事业局（PUB）负责统筹兼顾。

排水工程

2010年以前，新加坡的生活污水与工业废水通过于雨污分流制的排水管线与136座泵站输送到分布于城郊的6座污水处理厂中，从而按照区域划分进行分散处理。但随着一称为深层隧道排污系统(DTSS)的新型排水系统在新加坡的提出与实施，这些泵站与水厂逐渐成为历史。作为DTSS第一阶段的核心部分，樟宜供水回收厂与2010年6月，在新加坡时任总理李显龙的主持下，正式开始投入运营。 自2016年2月18日以来，新加坡深层隧道排污系统(DTSS)的第二阶段已经开始动工。同时，由于DTSS对污水的集中处理与净化，推动了本地饮用水品牌新生水NEWater的建立，在一定程度上缓解了新加坡饮用水缺乏的现状。

History

Map of Singapore showing in the Northeast the mouth of the Johor River (Kuala Johor), Singapore's main source of mud, and streams in the Central Catchment Area in the middle of Singapore.

Local water supply and first water imports during colonial time (until 1979)

The history of common water supply in Singapore began with the construction of the MacRitchie Reservoir, which was built by the British in 1866. The Lower Peirce Reservoir and the Upper Seletar Reservoir were completed in 1913 and 1949 respectively, in order to supply the rapidly modernising colonial city with sufficient water. In 1927 the municipal leadership of Singapore and Sultan Ibrahim of the state and territories of Johor in neighboring Malaya signed an agreement that allowed Singapore to rent land in Johor and use its water for free. The Municipal Water Department, under David J. Murnane, began importing raw water from Gunong Pulai in 1927 and filtered water on 31 December 1929. The water filtration and pipeline capacity from Gunong Pulai was doubled in 1939.[12] Another pipeline was built to return a smaller quantity of treated water to Johor. [來源請求] During the Battle of Singapore in 1942 the Causeway that links Singapore with Malaya and that carries the pipeline was blown up by retreating British troops, thus unintentionally destroying the pipeline, which left Singapore with water reserves that could last at most two weeks.[13] According to Lee Kuan Yew, this was one of his motives to envision water self-sufficiency for Singapore later when he became the city-state's Prime Minister.[8]

Expansion of water imports from Malaya and of local reservoirs (1965-1997)

After the war, Singapore continued to grow rapidly and more water was needed to sustain the city’s growth. The 1927 agreement was superseded by two new agreements signed in 1961 and 1962 between the independent federation of Malaya and the self-governing British territory of Singapore. They foresaw the payment of a water rate in addition to the rent for the land.[14]

Under these agreements Singapore built two water treatment plants in Singapore and a new, expanded pipeline from Johor.[15] Singapore also supplied treated water to Johor far below the cost of treating the water. At the time of the agreements it was expected that Singapore would become part of Malaysia, as it did for a brief period beginning in 1963.

When Singapore separated from Malaysia in 1965, then Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman said that "If Singapore’s foreign policy is prejudicial to Malaysia’s interests, we could always bring pressure to bear on them by threatening to turn off the water in Johor". Malaysians point out that this statement should be seen in context that Malaysia and Indonesia were engaged in a confrontation at the time and that the remark referred to the possibility of Singapore siding with Indonesia.[16]

This was another motive for Singapore to further develop its local water resources, according to Lee Kuan Yew. Therefore, in parallel to the gradual expansion of water imports from Johor the Public Utilities Board, created in 1963, embarked on the construction of more water schemes inside Singapore. They included the damming of river estuaries to allow for greater storage volumes. For example, the Kranji-Pandan Scheme, completed in 1975, included the damming of the estuary of the Kranji river and the construction of a reservoir at Pandan. In the same year, the Upper Peirce Reservoir was completed. As part of the Western Catchment Scheme, completed in 1981, another four rivers were dammed.[15]

In 1983, a dam was built across the estuary of the Seletar River to form the Lower Seletar Reservoir. But these amounts were still not sufficient, and seawater desalination was too expensive at the time to be considered. Singapore was thus interested in building a dam on the Johor River in Malaysia and an associated new water treatment plant. After six years of difficult negotiations, the Prime Ministers of Singapore and Malaysia signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 1988 paving the way for an agreement in 1990 with Johor that allowed the construction of the dam.[14]

The Upper Peirce Reservoir, one of the reservoirs located in Singapore's Central Catchment Nature Reserve.

Failed Water Negotiations with Malaysia (1998-2002)

In 1998 Singapore began new negotiations with Malaysia to extend its water agreements beyond 2011 and 2061 respectively. In return, Malaysia initially asked to increase the raw water price to 60 sen per 1,000英制加侖（4,500公升）, corresponding to 4 US cents per cubic meter.[17][18] This price was still much lower than the cost of desalinated seawater or of NEWater. However, in 2002 Malaysia asked for a much higher price of 6.4 Malaysian Ringgit per 1,000英制加侖（4,500公升） (US$0.45 per cubic meter), arguing that Hong Kong paid the equivalent of 8 Malaysian Ringgit per 1,000英制加侖（4,500公升） for water from China.[18][19][20]

The new price proposed by Malaysia was close to the price of desalinated water. The government of Singapore said that Malaysia had no right to alter the price of water. It further clarified that the price paid by Hong Kong included payment for substantial infrastructure provided by China, while Malaysia provided only access to raw water and the infrastructure necessary to convey the water inside Malaysia was entirely paid for by Singapore. Singapore finally refused to accept a higher price and decided to give up on its goal to extend the agreements beyond 2061. Instead, the country decided to achieve self-sufficiency in its water supply before 2061 and the negotiations ended in 2003 without result.

Towards Water Self-Sufficiency (since 2002)

While the negotiations were ongoing Singapore already prepared for greater water self-sufficiency through an integrated water management approach including water reuse and desalination of seawater. In 1998, the government initiated a study, the Singapore Water Reclamation Study (NEWater Study), to determine if reclaimed water treated to potable standards was a viable source of water. In order to facilitate the new integrated approach, the Public Utilities Board, which had previously been in charge of water supply only, was given the responsibility for sanitation as well in 2001. Previously sanitation had been under the direct responsibility of the Ministry of Environment. The new policy was called the "Four Taps": The first and second taps were local water catchments and water imports.

In 2002 Singapore commissioned its first reclaimed water plant, thus opening a "Third Tap". This was done carefully, after a monitoring period of two years to ensure safe water quality. There was also an active marketing campaign that included the opening of a visitor center, the sale of NEWater in bottles and the Prime Minister drinking a bottle of NEWater in front of the cameras.[13] In 2005 Singapore opened its first seawater desalination plant, the "Fourth Tap". In the meantime it also further expanded its reservoirs, the "First Tap". Today's largest reservoir, the Marina Bay reservoir, was inaugurated in 2008. It is located in the estuary of a river that has been closed off by a barrage to keep the seawater out. Two similar barrages were completed in July 2011, forming the Punggol Reservoir and the Serangoon Reservoir. When the 1961 water agreement with Malaysia ended in August 2011, Singapore could thus afford to let it expire.

Furthermore, Singapore has become a global water research and technology hub with active support from the government.

Outlook

Singapore wants to be water self-sufficient before the 2062 long-term water supply agreement with Malaysia expires in 2061. According to analysis by the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies in 2003, Singapore would already be water self-sufficient by 2011 and "the 'water threat' is less than what it seems to be".[21] However, according to official forecasts water demand in Singapore is expected to double from 380 to 760 million gallons per day between 2010 and 2060. The increase is expected to come primarily from non-domestic water use, which accounted for 55% of water demand in 2010 and is expected to account for 70% of demand in 2060. By that time water demand is expected to be met by reclaimed water at the tune of 50% and by desalination accounting for 30%, compared to only 20% supplied by internal catchments.[22][23]

Water sources and integrated management

The water resources of Singapore are especially precious given the small amount of densely settled land. Singapore receives an average of 2,400mm of rainfall annually, well above the global average of 1,050mm. The constraint is the limited land area to catch and store the rainfall, and the absence of natural aquifers and lakes.[8] Therefore, Singapore relies on four water sources, called "the four taps":

  • rainfall, collected in artificial reservoirs that collect water from carefully managed catchment areas (200-300 million gallons per day, depending on rainfall),
  • Imported water from Malaysia (up to 250 × 106英制加侖（1,100,000立方米） per day, according to the 99-year agreement signed in 1962, plus an additional quantity under the 1990 agreement),
  • Reclaimed water (producing what is called NEWater) (up to 115 × 106英制加侖（520,000立方米） per day, officially only "30% of demand"), and
  • Seawater desalination (up to 50 × 106英制加侖（230,000立方米） per day, officially only "10% of demand").

This "four tap" strategy aims to reduce reliance on supply from Malaysia by increasing the volume supplied from the three other sources, or "national taps". Since water demand in 2011 was 380 × 106英制加侖（1,700,000立方米） per day, Singapore could actually already have been water self-sufficient in 2011 except in years of very low rainfall. The official figures downplay the share of reclaimed and desalinated water in water supply, and thus the ability of the country to be self-sufficient. However, the Chairman of PUB admitted in 2012 that water self-sufficiency could be achieved well before the target year of 2061.

In Singapore, water management is closely integrated with land management. The latter is tightly controlled in order to prevent any pollution of water resources through sewage, sullage or other sources of pollution. The management of water supply, sanitation and stormwater drainage is managed by a single agency, the Public Utilities Board, in an integrated and coordinated manner.

Water from catchment areas

参见：List of dams and reservoirs in Singapore
The barrage of the Marina Bay reservoir.

Two thirds of the country's surface area are classified as partly protected catchment areas with certain restrictions on land use, so that the rainwater can be collected and used as drinking water. As of 2012, surface water was collected in 17 raw water reservoirs.[24] Singapore's oldest reservoirs - MacRitchie, Lower Peirce, Upper Selatar as well as the more recently built Upper Peirce Reservoir - are all located in the Central Catchment Nature Reserve, a protected area that has been reforested to protect the water resources and act as a "green lung" for the city. The larger reservoirs, however, have been built after independence and are located in river estuaries that have been closed off by barrages.

Reservoir water is treated through chemical coagulation, rapid gravity filtration and disinfection.[25]

Imported water

The water pipeline from Malaysia, shown here at the Johor-Woodlands causeway, supplies 40% of Singapore's water supply.

Singapore imports water from Johor state in Malaysia through a pipeline that runs along a 1 km bridge, the Johor–Singapore Causeway, that also carries a road and a railway. As of 2009, imported water had been reduced from 50% previously to 40% of total consumption.[26] After the expiry of a 1961 water agreement between Malaysia and Singapore in 2011, two agreements are in force now. One was signed in 1962 and another one in 2000. Both will expire in 2061. Under the first agreement the price of raw water is set at a very low level of 3 Malaysian sen per 1,000英制加侖（4,500公升）, corresponding to about 0,2 US cents per cubic meter.[27]

Under this agreement Singapore is entitled to receive up to 250 × 106英制加侖（1,100,000立方米） per day, corresponding to 66% of its water use of 380 × 106英制加侖（1,700,000立方米） in 2011. Furthermore, under the 1990 agreement Singapore is entitled to receive an additional unspecified quantity of water from the Linggui dam in Malaysia at a price that is higher than under the 1960 agreement. The actual amount of water imported is much lower than the entitlement: Based on the 40% share quoted above, water imports in 2011 are about 150 × 106英制加侖（680,000立方米）.

Reclaimed water

主条目：NEWater
Bottles of NEWater for distribution during the National Day Parade celebrations of 2005 at Marina South.

NEWater is the brand name given to ultra-pure water that is produced from reclaimed water. Wastewater, which is called used water in Singapore, is treated in conventional advanced wastewater treatment plants that are called reclamation plants in Singapore. The effluent from the reclamation plants is either discharged into the sea or it is further treated in NEWater plants using dual-membrane (via microfiltration and reverse osmosis) and ultraviolet technologies.

The quality of NEWater is monitored by, among others, an international panel of experts. The quality of NEWater exceeds WHO standards for drinking water. In 2012, there were four NEWater factories, located at the Bedok, Kranji, Ulu Pandan and Changi next to five water reclamation plants.

Plant name Date of commissioning Current capacity Operator
Bedok 2002 19 × 106英制加侖（86,000立方米） PUB [28]
Kranji 2002 12 × 106英制加侖（55,000立方米） PUB [29]
Seletar 2004 Decommissioned in 2011 PUB [30]
Ulu Pandan 2007 33 × 106英制加侖（150,000立方米） Keppel Seghers [31]
Changi 2010 50 × 106英制加侖（230,000立方米） Sembcorp [32][33]

Most of the NEWater is used by industries for non-potable uses such as wafer fabrication. The rest is fed into nearby reservoirs. As of 2008, according to PUB NEWater was able to meet 30% of Singapore's water requirements.[34] The high purity of the water has actually allowed industries to reduce their costs.[13] With the construction of the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System the decentralized water reclamation plants and NEWater factories are expected to be gradually closed and replaced by the single, much larger water reclamation plant and NEWater factory at Changi at the Eastern end of Singapore Island. The Bedok reclamation plant was the first one to be decommissioned in 2009, followed by the Seletar plant in 2011. The Bedok NEWater plant, however, continued to operate, while the Seletar NEWater plant was decommissioned along with the reclamation plant.[30] The Kranji, Ulu Pandan and Bedok reclamation plants had been upgraded in 1999-2001, making them more compact so that they needed less land and covering them for odor control in order to make nearby land more valuable.[35]

Desalinated seawater

On 13 September 2005, the country opened its first desalination plant, SingSpring Desalination Plant, in Tuas at the southwestern tip of Singapore Island. The S$200 million plant, built and operated by Hyflux, can produce 30 × 106英制加侖（140,000立方米） of water each day and meets 10% of the country's water needs.[36] The bid to build and operate Singapore's second and largest desalination plant, Tuaspring Desalination Plant, with a capacity of 70 × 106英制加侖（320,000立方米） per day, also located at Tuas, was launched in June 2010.[37] Hyflux won the contract in April 2011, and the plant began operations two years later in 2013 .[38] Together, desalinated water from SingSpring and Tuaspring can meet up to 25% of Singapore's current water needs.[何时？]

The government has identified five coastal sites for future plants, with the objective of bringing the installed capacity to one million m³ per day, so that desalination will be able to meet up to 25% of Singapore's future water demand by 2060.[來源請求]

Plant name Date of commissioning Maximum capacity (ML/day) Operator
SingSpring 2005 136.4[39] PUB
Sungei Tampines 2007 4[40][41] PUB
Tuaspring 2013 320[40] PUB
Keppel Marina East Construction commenced 2017 114[40]
Jurong Island Expected in 2020 137[42]

Sanitation

Until 2010, wastewater in Singapore was collected through a sewer system that included 139 pumping stations that pumped water to six wastewater treatment plants. These pumping stations and plants are to be gradually decommissioned while a new system, the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS), becomes operational.[43] The Changi Water Reclamation Plant, the heart of the first phase of the DTSS, was opened by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong in June 2010.[44]

The first phase of the DTSS consists of a 48-km long deep tunnel sewer that runs 20 to 55 metres below ground, channels used water to the Changi Water Reclamation Plant at the Eastern end of the island. The plant had an initial capacity of 176 × 106英制加侖（800,000立方米） per day. Most of the treated used water is discharged into the sea through an outfall, while some of it is further purified into NEWater. The deep tunnel works entirely by gravity, eliminating the need for pumping stations, and thus the risks of used water overflows. At one-third the size of conventional plants, the Changi Water Reclamation Plant is designed to be compact. Centralisation of used water treatment at Changi also allows for economies of scale. In a second phase of the DTSS, the deep tunnel system is to be expanded to the entire island, with a second wastewater treatment plant at Tuas at the Western end of the island.[43]

Stormwater management

The stormwater drainage system in Singapore is completely separated from the sewer system. It consists of 7,000 km of public roadside drains and about 1,000 km of major canals and waterways that are regularly cleaned of debris and maintained by private companies under performance-based contracts with PUB.[45] This system has reduced the flood-prone area from 3,200 hectares in the 1970s to about 49 hectares today despite increased urbanization, which usually would have resulted in more floods. PUB plans to further reduce flood prone areas to 40 hectares by 2013. In the 1960s and 1970s widespread flooding was common in Singapore, especially in the city centre, which is built on relatively low-lying land.[46] Nevertheless, flash floods caused by unusually heavy rains and blocked drains caused damage in 2010 and 2011.[47]

Water use, conservation and efficiency

There have also been campaigns to urge people to conserve water, reducing consumption from 165 litres per person per day in 2003 to 155 litres in 2009. The target is to lower it to 140 litres by 2030.[2] Public education was an important instrument to promote water conservation. For example, a Water Efficiency Labeling Scheme for taps, showerheads, toilets and washing machines was introduced so that consumers could make informed choices when making purchases. Also, the tariff structure was modified. While tariffs historically included a cross-subsidy from industries that paid a higher price to residential users that paid a lower price for social reasons, this policy was ended and residential users were charged a tariff that covers the full costs of supply.[8] The level of water losses - more precisely defined as non-revenue water - is one of the lowest in the world at only 5%.

Responsibility for water supply and sanitation

The headquarters of the Public Utilities Board.

Within the government of Singapore the Ministry of the Environment and Water Resources is in charge of policy setting for water and sanitation. The Public Utilities Board, a statutory board under the Ministry, is in charge of providing drinking water as well as of sanitation and stormwater drainage. It also monitors compliance of potential polluters on the basis of the Sewerage and Drainage Act. PUB this is both a service provider and a regulator, but its regulatory role only encompasses other entities. The National Environment Agency monitors PUB's compliance with environmental as well as drinking water quality standards on the basis of the Environmental and Public Health Act. Legislation is effectively implemented, with heavy fines, and the various agencies in charge of water work together in a coordinated manner under a common framework.[8]

Research and development

In 2006, the Singapore government identified water as a new growth sector and committed to invest S$330 million over the following five years in order to make Singapore a global hub for water research and development.[8] PUB has an active research and development program that includes upstream research, pilot projects and demonstration projects.[48] An Environment and Water Industry Development Council (EWI) has been established to support, together with the National Research Foundation, a Strategic Research Programme on Clean Water.[49][50]

Leading Japanese companies such as Toshiba and Toray have established water research centers in Singapore.[51][52] Singapore is home to over 70 local and international water companies and 23 research and development centers working on about 300 projects valued at $185 million.[53] Furthermore, the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy at National University of Singapore established an Institute of Water Policy in 2008. Also since 2008, the city-state has hosted the Singapore International Water Week, a key event for the global water industry.

Financial aspects

Tariffs. Water and sewer tariffs in Singapore are set at a level allowing cost recovery, including capital costs. Water and sewer tariffs were raised substantially in the late 1990s, so that the average monthly domestic bill including taxes increased from S$13 in 1996 to S$30 in 2000.[54] The sewerage tariff (called "waterborne fee") is S$0.30/m3 for domestic users plus a fixed tariff of S$3 per "chargeable fitting" per month. The water tariff includes a conservation tax set at 30% that increases to 45% for domestic consumption above 40 m3 per month. A general service tax of 7% is added to the bill. As of 2012, a household consuming 20 m3 per month and that has three "chargeable fittings" faces a water bill of S$32.5 per month and a sewer bill of S$15 per month, both including all taxes. The total of S$47.5 (USD 37.7) per month corresponds to S$2.38/m3 (US$1.88/m3). Industrial water tariffs are set lower at S$0.52/m3.[4] Water and sewerage tariffs are lower than tariffs in some European countries such as in Germany where the average water and sewer tariff including taxes was Euro 3.95 per m3 in 2004.

Investment. In the financial year 2010 PUB undertook investments of S$411 million (USD 290 million) in its own assets, mainly for water supply and NEWater, and S$451 million (USD 319 million) for assets belonging to the government, mainly for sanitation and stormwater drainage.[5] This corresponds to annual investments of USD 117 per capita, which is higher than in the United States where the corresponding figure is USD 97.

Financing. In 2005 PUB issued for the first time a bond, raising S$400 million, to finance part of its investment program. Since then, bonds have been issued regularly, including a S$300 million bond with a maturity of 20 years in 2007.[55] During the financial year 2010, PUB Group received an operating grant of S$185 million to fund the operation and maintenance of the stormwater drainage network and operating costs of certain water infrastructure assets such as the Marina, Serangoon and Punggol Reservoir schemes.[5]

See also

References

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  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Public Utilities Board:Conserve, accessed on August 22, 2010
  3. ^ https://www.pub.gov.sg/savewater. [19 June 2017].  缺少或|title=为空 (帮助)
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Public Utilities Board:Water tariff, accessed on July 16, 2012
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  6. ^ 新加坡水資源管理概況 (PDF). 立法會秘書處-資料研究組. [2017-11-09] （中文）. 
  7. ^ 新加坡水資源管理概況 (PDF). 立法會秘書處-資料研究組: 5. [2017-11-09] （中文）. 公用事業局轄下有一家由該局全資擁有的附屬公司——公用事業局顧問私人有限公司 (PUB Consultants Private Ltd)，透過該公司扶助新加坡水利產業的發展。公用事業局顧問私人有限公司是公用事業局轄下的商業機構，與多家以新加坡為基地的水務公司合作進行海外項目，合作的範疇包括供水的基建發展，以至營運和保養都市供水系統等項目。
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  11. ^ 强, 屈; 张雨山、王静、赵楠. 新加坡水资源开发与海水利用技术. 海洋开发. 2006: 41 [2017-11-09]. 
  12. ^ David J. Murnane
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "Singapore’s Water Cycle Wizardry," by Sandra Upson, IEEE Spectrum, June 2010, retrieved on August 9, 2012
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Valerie Chew: Singapore-Malaysia water agreements 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期2012-06-09., Singapore Infopedia, retrieved on June 7, 2012
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Development of Water Supply Infrastructure: MacRitchy Reservoir History, retrieved on June 7, 2012
  16. ^ quoting Professor Nur Anuak. History of water - according to Utusan Malaysia, in: Malaysia to stop purchasing treated water from singapore. 6 January 2003 [11 August 2012]. 
  17. ^ The Star:WATER: The Singapore-Malaysia Dispute: THE FACTS
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 Cecilia Tortajada and Kimberly Pobre:The Singapore–Malaysia water relationship: an analysis of the media perspectives, Hydrological Sciences Journal, July 2011
  19. ^ BBC:Malaysia raises water stakes, 15 February 2003, retrieved on July 21, 2012
  20. ^ Baradan Kuppusamy Water war makes small splash, Asia Times, 1 August 2003
  21. ^ Poh Onn Lee. The water issue between Singapore and Malaysia: No solution in sight?. 2003, updated in July 2010 [11 August 2012]. 
  22. ^ Bloomberg interview with Chew Men Leong, chief executive of PUB. Singapore To Meet Water Target Before Deadline: Southeast Asia. 30 July 2012 [9 August 2012]. 
  23. ^ PUB. Four National Taps Provide Water for All. [10 August 2012]. 
  24. ^ PUB. Local Catchment Water. [15 July 2012]. 
  25. ^ PUB. Water Treatment. [12 August 2012]. 
  26. ^ Key step to water adequacy. Straits Times. [2009-06-24]. （原始内容存档于June 27, 2009）. 
  27. ^ Valerie Chew:Singapore-Malaysia water agreements 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期2012-06-09., Singapore Infopedia. This is based on an exchange rate of 3.11 Malaysian Ringgit per US dollar, as of August 11, 2012
  28. ^ General Electric. Bedok NEWater Factory (PDF). [10 August 2012]. 
  29. ^ PUB. PUB Expands NEWater Plants and Builds MBR Demo Plant, 15 September 2005. [10 August 2012]. 
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 PUB. Seletar Water Reclamation Plant Decommissioned. [10 August 2012]. 
  31. ^ Channelnewsasia:NEWater to supply 30% of Singapore's water needs by 2011: PM, retrieved on August 10, 2012
  32. ^ PUB. NEWater. [9 August 2012]. 
  33. ^ Channelnewsasia:PUB awards contract for NEWater plant at Changi to Sembcorp, retrieved on August 10, 2012
  34. ^ 2008 PUB Annual Report. Public Utilities Board. [25 June 2009]. 
  35. ^ PUB. Water Reclamation Plants. [9 August 2012]. 
  36. ^ Dominique Loh. PM Lee opens Asia's largest water desalination plant in Tuas. Channel NewsAsia. 
  37. ^ Hyflux to build Singapore's biggest desalination plant. Straits Times. 
  38. ^ PUB Press Release. PUB and Hyflux sign Water Purchase Agreement for Singapore’s second and largest desalination project. 6 April 2011 [9 August 2012]. 
  39. ^ Hyflux » SingSpring Desalination Plant, Singapore. www.hyflux.com. [2017-10-06]. 
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 40.2 World’s first large-scale desalination plant for sea and freshwater to open in Singapore in 2020. TODAYonline. [2017-10-06] （英语）. 
  41. ^ Pasir Ris PUB plant can treat sea and canal water. www.asiaone.com. [2017-10-06]. 
  42. ^ Jurong Island desalination project awarded on $0.91/cubic metre price. www.waterworld.com. [2017-10-06]. 
  43. ^ 43.0 43.1 National Environment Agency:Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS), News Release, 22 January 2001, accessed on August 22, 2010
  44. ^ Milestones: Largest and most advanced water reclamation plant in Southeast Asia. Public Utilities Board. [7 June 2012]. 
  45. ^ Drainage Maintenance. [9 August 2012]. 
  46. ^ PUB. Managing Flash Floods: Overview. [9 August 2012]. 
  47. ^ Channelnewsasia.com. Managing flash floods is PUB's priority: CEO. 24 December 2011 [9 August 2012]. 
  48. ^ PUB:. R&D Approach in PUB. [19 July 2012]. 
  49. ^ National Research Foundation. Strategic Research Programmes: Environmental & Water Technologies. [19 July 2012]. 
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  51. ^ EDB Singapore. Toshiba opens water treatment research centre in Singapore. 11 April 2012 [19 July 2012]. 
  52. ^ Toray. Inauguration of Toray Singapore Water Research Center - Toray's Water Treatment R&D Base in Singapore -. 29 June 2010 [19 July 2012]. 
  53. ^ PUB Annual Report 2011. Partnering for Water. [9 August 2012]. 
  54. ^ Cecilia Tortajada. Water management in Singapore. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 2006, 22 (2): 227–240. doi:10.1080/07900620600691944. 
  55. ^ Public Utilities Board. PUB Bond, October 2007. [7 June 2012]. 
關於Clarezqwq/沙盒
的圖書館資源






菲律宾给排水管网与配套设施的建设可以追溯到1956年国家独立之后。在菲律宾，给排水系统的运行与监管主要由国家相应机关、地方有关机构、非政府组织（NGOs）与一些国控企业负责。

水资源概况

位于菲律宾本格特省下属博科德的Ambuklao Dam及水电站

菲律宾地处热带地区，四面被海洋包围，属于典型的热带海洋性气候，高温多雨，年降水量接近3000毫米。主要淡水水源为地表河流、湖泊与地下水库。其国境内最长的河流，卡加延河每年会向菲律宾提供大约539.43亿立方米的淡水资源。而其47.895亿立方米的地下水资源则主要来自于降水与其境内河流与湖泊的渗流作用。

菲律宾当地的淡水主要用于水产养殖。其四大地下水库为卡加延、吕守岛、通古桑以及格拉巴托。为满足农业灌溉与居民生活用水、用电的需求，菲律宾境内兴修了438座大型水坝与423座小型水坝。这些大大小小的水坝不仅用于淡水资源的贮存，也同样用于农业灌溉、防洪调度以及水力发电。[1] 菲律宾首都马尼拉中心城区的供水水源主要来自于安加特大坝、Ipo Dam以及La Mesa Dam。而同样一些在国家水利工程中起着举足轻重的作用，且规模更大的大坝则主要建于菲律宾的农村地区。诸如用于防汛调度、农业灌溉以及向碧瑶市与吕宋岛部分地区提供水电的安布克劳水电站与向伊莎贝拉岛提供主要农业用水与水电资源的Magat Dam。

供水情况

2000年，菲律宾的年用水量达到了285.2亿m³，其中74%，即211.0亿m³的淡水主要用于农业灌溉；9%，即25.7亿m³的淡水用于工业生产；剩余17%，即48.5亿淡水用于居民的日常生活。[2] 2015年，菲律宾基础用水覆盖率达到了92%，遍及94%的城市地区与90%的农村地区。但同期仍有八百万的菲律宾居民的日常生活受到供水短缺的影响。[3][4]

巴基斯坦供水系统及卫生设施的建设随着其经济与科技的进步，在近年来发展迅速，但依旧面临着诸多挑战与更为复杂的国内外环境。1990年至2010年期间，尽管巴基斯坦人口增长迅速，但全国饮用水覆盖率仍由85%增长到了92%。同期，根据世界卫生组织以及世界儿童基金会（英语：UNICEF）于供水与卫生联合监控方案（英语：Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation）所公布的数据，巴基斯坦改良卫生设施的普及率由原有的27%增长到了48%。[5]

然而，巴基斯坦在给排水方面的发展依旧任重而道远。虽然自80年代，巴基斯塔的水利投资在国家预算中一直占有较大的比重——8%左右。[6]但其城市地区间歇性的用水供给与尚不完善的污水处理设施的建设几乎成了巴基斯坦在给排水方面发展过程中最大的阻碍。于此同时，仍有待改善的饮用水水质与尚不完备卫生设施也成为了介水疾病大规模爆发的诱因之一。2006年，由此引起的水传染疾病在巴基斯坦费萨尔巴德、卡拉奇、拉合尔、白沙瓦等地大规模爆发。[7]据估计，每年约有三百万巴基斯坦人感染各种介水疾病，每年因腹泻死亡的人数是11.8万。[8][9]不仅如此，由于过低的税收与设备低下的处理效率，一些有关的企业难以支撑其水处理设施与管网正常运转与长期维护的大额开销。[10]这直接导致了这些企业与单位对政府的补助与额外的资助有着极强的依耐性。[11] 与此同时，根据1993年中国水利部水利财务管理考察团的调查，其水利工程主要靠政府投资和国外贷款集资建设。[6]

2006年6月27日[?]，巴基斯坦总理阿齐兹表示，向全民提供安全饮用水、确保公众健康不受水源性传染病的影响是联邦政府的首要任务之一。巴政府计划斥资超过78亿卢比于2007年底前在全国范围内建设6036座水质净化厂。该项计划旨在“为全民提供安全的饮用水”，是巴政府控制水源性传染病，建设“健康而具活力的巴基斯坦”规划的一部分。作为该计划的首期，巴政府将于2006年底前将500座水质净化厂投入使用；二期计划巴政府将确保至2007年底前在全国每个区至少建一座水质净化厂；截止2010年，三期实施方案已经制订完毕。[12]


巴基斯坦《商业记录报》5月3日报道，在5月2日召开的共同利益委员会会议上讨论了《国家水资源政策》，其中指出巴基斯坦人均可用地表水资源由1951年的5260立方米下降至2016年的1000立方米，随着人口的继续快速增加，巴基斯坦水资源紧张局面将继续加剧，预计到2025年人均可用地表水资源将下降至860立方米，对农业生产和健康保障带来巨大压力。[13]

印度河及支流，Kmhkmh提供。

印度河水協定是印度與巴基斯坦兩國之間的水資源共享協議，協議在1960年9月16日由兩國領袖及世界銀行簽署。

由於印度河及其他好幾條支流都是從印度流入巴基斯坦，1947年印度分治後兩國在水資源的分配上出現爭議，後由世界銀行介入調停，經多年努力，兩國達成了《印度河水協定》。

根據協定，印度河、奇納布河及杰赫勒姆河除部份河水供給克什米爾外，全部劃歸巴基斯坦；而薩特萊傑河、拉維河及比亞斯河則劃歸印度。巴基斯坦自此展開了長達14年的印度河河谷發展計劃。

參考

水资源概况

巴基斯坦为亚热带和热带气候，全国年均降水量不足300mm，其中约有2/3的地区年平均降水量小于250毫米,且时空分布很不均匀。[6] 干旱半干旱地区占国土面积的60%以上。印度河是巴基斯坦最主要的河流，全长2880km，流域面积98万平方公里，年径流量2072亿平方米，在巴基斯坦境内的流域面积有56.1万平方公里，年径流为1660亿立方米。

巴基斯坦为农业国，耕地集中在印度河平原，由于气候干旱，农业生产很大程度依靠水渠和管井灌溉。为了解决巴基斯坦拉维河、萨特莱杰河与比亚斯河下游 320万公顷土地的灌溉用水问题，巴基斯坦制定了从印度河及其支流杰卢姆河和奇纳布河向拉维河、萨特莱杰河、比亚斯河的调水计划，即西水东调工程，这也是当今世界上调水量最大的工程之一。[14]

Access

巴基斯坦农村地区的手摇式水泵

2015年，巴基斯坦“改良饮用水”的覆盖率达到了91%[15][16] 共惠及全国945的城市人口与90%的农村人口。但与此同时，仍有大约1千6百万巴基斯坦人的生活用水水质没有达到可以长期使用的标准。在“改良”卫生与水质处理设施建设方面，巴国的普及率达到了64%，遍及83%的城市地区与51%的农村地区。[15][17]

根据世界卫生组织以及世界儿童基金会于供水与卫生联合监控方案所公布的数据, 自1990年到2010年的20年间，巴基斯坦改良饮用水的覆盖率由85%增长到了92%，改良卫生设施的普及率由27%增加到了48%（见表一）。[18]

表一: 巴基斯坦给水排水情况 (2010)[18]
城市地区
(占有全国人口的36%) 		农村地区
(占有全国人口的64%) 		总计
给水 广义 96% 89% 92%
房屋连接管 57% 15% 29%
排水 广义 72% 34% 48%
排水设备 40% (2004) 6% (2004) 18% (2004)

References

  1. ^ WATER RESOURCES. www.denr.gov.ph.  已忽略未知参数|acce= (帮助)
  2. ^ Asian Development Bank; Asia-Pacific Water Forum. Country Paper Philippines. Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. 2007 [2008-04-14]. , p. 5
  3. ^ WASHwatch.org - Philippines. washwatch.org. [2017-05-09] （英语）. 
  4. ^ WHO/UNICEF (2015) Progress on sanitation and drinking water - 2015 update and MDG assessment, Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
  5. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan: 11. 2007 [2008-05-28]. 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 巴基斯坦利用外资开发水利. 中国知网. [2017-11-07] （中文）. 
  7. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan: 9. 2007 [2008-05-28]. 
  8. ^ 2006 年人类发展报告——透视贫水：权力、贫穷与全球水危机 (PDF). 联合国开发计划署(UNDP): 62. [2017-11-07] （中文）. 
  9. ^ Weekly Independent. 2005-03-17.  缺少或|title=为空 (帮助); cited in:Water and Sanitation Program. Managing Karachi's water supply and sanitation services: lessons from a workshop (PDF): 3. August 2004 [2008-06-04]. 
  10. ^ Bridges, Geoff; Asian Development Bank (ADB). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007. Country Paper Pakistan: 12–13. 2007 [2008-05-28]. 
  11. ^ Government of Pakistan. Ministry of Water and Power. Pakistan Water Sector Strategy. Water Sector Profile. Volume 5 (PDF): 105. October 2002 [2008-05-29]. 
  12. ^ 巴基斯坦07年底前再建6036座水净化厂. PROCESS化工网. 2010-07-21 [2017-11-06] （中文）. 
  13. ^ 巴基斯坦水资源面临严峻挑战. 中华人民共和国商务部. 2017-05-03 [2017-11-06] （中文）. 
  14. ^ 运辉, 李; 陈献耘，沈艳忱. 巴基斯坦西水东调工程. 水利发展研究. 2002-10-21: 56 [2017-11-05].  |year=与|date=不匹配 (帮助)
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Pakistan. WASHWatch. [21 March 2017]. 
  16. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. JMP. [21 March 2017]. 
  17. ^ WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 引用错误：没有为名为JMP的参考文献提供内容

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