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The Jingxiang rebellion, or the Jingxiang refugees' rebellion (（中文）), refers to a series of rebellions that occurred between 1465 and 1476 in the Ming dynasty of China, during the reign of the Chenghua Emperor. These rebellions took place in the prefectures of Jingzhou and Xiangyang, located in the northeast of Huguang in central China. The rebellions were led by illegal immigrants who had settled in these peripheral areas of Huguang and sought to establish their own independent organization separate from the Ming state. Despite repeated defeats by the Ming army, the situation was eventually resolved through the recognition of the immigrants' right to the land they occupied and the implementation of proper state administration in the affected territory.

Background

The Jingxiang rebellion of 1465–1476 was the most significant Chinese rebellion of the 15th century and arguably the most significant social upheaval in the Ming state between the civil war of 1399–1402 and the Li Zicheng rebellion in the final years of the Ming dynasty.[1]

It was named after the prefectures of Jingzhou and Xiangyang located in the northwestern corner of Huguang in central China. These prefectures were vast, spanning over 300 km in all directions, and despite a considerable amount of mountainous terrain, they were fertile. During the Tang and Song dynasties, the region was densely populated and in close proximity to the political center of the empire. However, after the invasions and struggles of the Yuan period, the region was largely depopulated in the 14th century and became a refuge for displaced people.[1]

In 1369–1370, the region was conquered by General Deng Yu (Template:Zhi) and came under Ming administration.[2] Immigration was prohibited.[3] Over the next few decades, the area remained sparsely populated and relatively peaceful. However, in the 1430s, famine-stricken individuals from Henan began to flee to the region. This influx of people led to an increase in population and the formation of independent communities.[4]

In the 1450s and 1460s, hundreds of thousands of illegal immigrants,[4] including refugees fleeing hunger, taxes, and the law, arrived in the Jingxiang region. By the mid-1460s, the population had reached two million. These individuals were not registered in official records (Yellow Registers), did not pay taxes, and lived independently from the state.[3]

Rebellions of 1465–1466 and 1470

In the 1460s, the local residents began to unite,[4] led by the strongman Liu Tong with the assistance of the monk Shi Long (nicknamed Thousand-catties Liu and Monk Shi).[5] Liu united small bandits and declared himself King of Han and proclaimed the era name of Desheng (loosely translated as "Virtue Victorious"). He also established his own administration and organized an army of tens of thousands of warriors.[4]

The Ming government responded to the rebellion by dispatching troops under the leadership of Northern Frontier veteran Zhu Yong, Count of Funing, and Minister of Works, Bai Gui.[a] In 1465, Zhu Yong and Bai Gui assembled soldiers from various provinces, including the detachments of General Li Zhen of Huguang, and successfully quelled the rebellion in 1466. The rebel leader, Liu Tong, was captured in the summer of 1466.[7]

Coincidentally, a prominent comet appeared in the Beijing sky only fifteen days after Xiang Zhong's report of the suppression of the rebellion reached the city. The comet was visible at night for a whole month and, according to Chinese beliefs, it was seen as a sign of Heaven's displeasure with the government's actions. This caused officials to begin discussing possible erroneous decisions made by the government. In their search for the culprits of the discontent of the Heavens, Xiang Zhong and Li Zhen were accused of killing innocent people during counterinsurgency actions. However, the Chenghua Emperor sided with them and stopped the prosecution.[8]

The military defeat did not solve the problem with immigrants. In fact, when another 900,000 people flocked to the region due to famine in 1470, a new rebellion broke out. The leader of this rebellion, Li Yuan (also known as Li Huzi, or Bearded Li), declared himself the "King of Taiping" (Taiping wang; 'King of Great Peace').[6] He was supported by Monk Shi from behind.[3] In December 1470, Xiang Zhong,[3] the right censor-in-chief and one of the most prominent military commanders among officials, was sent to suppress the rebels. With the help of Li Zhen in Huguang, he gathered an army of 250,000 and successfully suppressed the rebellion.[6] Bearded Li was captured in August 1471.[3] As a result of the suppression, hundreds of people were executed and thousands were sent into exile. Additionally, 1.5 million people returned to their homelands.[6][b]

Rebellion of 1476 and aftermath

In the summer of 1476, as people began to return to the region, riots erupted once again. In response, the government sent Yuan Jie (Template:Zhi), a censor, to investigate the social and economic conditions. This sparked a lively discussion in the capital about potential solutions to the problem. The government favored social and organizational measures, based on the belief that a good government would bring peace to the country and its people, as per the Confucian thesis. Yuan Jie was tasked with implementing these measures, and he made the decision to recognize the right of immigrants to the land they cultivated. He then organized the registration of both land and people, successfully registering over 113,000 families and 438,000 individuals. Additionally, he proposed the establishment of several new counties, and by the end of 1476, the new prefecture of Yunyang had been created.[9] A defense military command was also established in the seat of the new prefecture, with jurisdiction over neighboring districts in neighboring provinces. This command was headed by a grand coordinator (xunfu). Within a year, Yuan Jie was able to stabilize the situation and bring calm to the region through effective governance.[10]

Notes

  1. ^ Later, from 1467 to 1474, Bai Gui served as the Minister of War.[6]
  2. ^ After the defeat of the rebellion, Xiang Zhong was transferred to the northern border and later became the Minister of Justice. In 1474, he also took on the role of Minister of War.[6]

References

Citations

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 Mote (1998)，第384页.
  2. ^ Mote (1998)，第385页.
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Goodrich & Fang (1976)，第536页.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Mote (1998)，第386页.
  5. ^ Brook (2003)，第118页.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Mote (1998)，第387页.
  7. ^ Mote (1998)，第386–387页.
  8. ^ Goodrich & Fang (1976)，第537页.
  9. ^ Mote (1998)，第388页.
  10. ^ Mote (1998)，第389页.

Works cited

  • Mote, Frederick W. The Ch'eng-hua and Hung-chih reigns, 1465—1505. Mote, Frederick W.; Twitchett, Denis C (编). The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1998: 343–402. ISBN 0521243327. 
  • Goodrich, L. Carington; Fang, Chaoying. Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644. New York: Columbia University Press. 1976. ISBN 0-231-03801-1. 
  • Brook, Timothy. Čtvero ročních období dynastie Ming: Čína v období 1368–1644 [The Confusions of Pleasure]. 由Liščák, Vladimír翻译 1st. Praha: Vyšehrad. 2003. ISBN 80-7021-583-6 （捷克语）. 

Category:Military history of the Ming dynasty Category:Ming dynasty politics Category:Rebellions in China Category:15th-century rebellions

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