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水军宣传（英语：Astroturfing）是指掩盖某条消息或某个组织（如政治、广告、宗教或公共关系等）赞助商，使其看起来源于草根参与者、获得草根参与者的支持的手法，目的在于隐藏消息来源的资金联系，提升特定声明或组织的可信度。英文术语源于人工草地毯品牌AstroTurf（英语：AstroTurf），暗含“草根”一词的含义。因此，该术语的潜在含义是质疑“草根”的行为“虚假”、“人为”，非“真实”、“自然”。

定义

在政治学中，“水军宣传”指为了发泄不满，利用手段帮助政治角色找到并动员富有同情心的公众，在没有共识的情况下树立公共心想，以此争取选举胜利或立法救济的过程[1][2]。水军宣传的目的主要是利用草根民众的行为影响民众观点，一般由希望形成观点公司和政治实体资助[3]。在网络上，水军宣传者利用软件伪装身份，有时甚至会一人分饰多个身份，让人以为他们客户的议程获得广泛支持[4][5]。部分研究指出，水军宣传可以左右民众观点，制造足以抑制行动的猜疑[6][7]。牛津大学教授菲利普·N·霍华德（英语：Philip N. Howard）在美国展开首个针对水军宣传的系统性研究，他认为互联网使得有权势的说客及政治运动更容易激起一小部分受压迫的公民，在公共政策辩论发挥经扩大的影响力[2]。

政策规管

许多国家立法禁止明显的水军宣传行为[8]。美国联邦贸易委员会会向违反其《有关在广告宣传中使用背书和证言的规范》（"Guides Concerning the Use of Endorsements and Testimonials in Advertising"）的人士发出停止并终止令或罚款1.6万美元[8][9]。贸易委的规范随后于2009年更新，社交媒体和口碑宣传纳入其中[10][11]。《消费者政策杂志》（Journal of Consumer Policy）的一篇文章指出，贸易委的指南坚称广告商要负责确保博客主或产品代言人遵守规范，任何拥有实质性联系的产品代言人需要诚实作出评价[8]。

欧盟《不公平商业惯例指令（英语：Unfair Commercial Practices Directive）》要求媒体在传播付费赞助内容时，明确表明内容有广告赞助[8]。另外，指令禁止有实质性联系的人士误导读者，让对方以为他们是常客[8]。

英国《保护消费者免受不公平交易侵害条例（英语：Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations）》禁止“以消费者身份进行虚假代言”，违者会被判最多2年监禁和无上限的罚款[8]。另外，英国广告业已经采纳了许多自愿性法规，包括《非广播广告、销售、推广及直销法》（Code of Non-Broadcast Advertising, Sale, Promotion and Direct Marketing）。另外，英国也设立了贸易委员会英国广告标准局（英语：Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)），调查上述部门的投诉。该法律还要求营销专业人士不能误导观众，包括故意不公开他们的实质性联系[8]。

澳大利亚消费者法（英语：Australian Consumer Law）第18章对水军宣传进行规管，广泛禁止“误导及欺骗行为”。《消费者政策杂志》表示，1975年颁布的这条法律其实很模糊。在大多数案件中，该法是由竞争对手提请的诉讼实行的，而不是监管机构澳大利亚竞争与消费者委员会（英语：Australian Competition and Consumer Commission）[8]。另外，相关机构还有国际消费者保护和执法网络（International Consumer Protection and Enforcement Network）[12]。

法律规定主要针对展示产品性能或质量的代言、背书和陈述。在缺乏权威机构监督的情况下，组织员工也被认为扮演消费者[12]。


In October 2018, after denying that they had paid for people to show up in support of a controversial power plant development project in New Orleans, Entergy（英语：Entergy） was fined five million dollars for using astroturf firm The Hawthorn Group to provide actors to prevent real community members' voices from being counted at city council meetings and show false grassroots support.[13]

Debate

Effectiveness

In the book Grassroots for Hire: Public Affairs（英语：Public affairs industry） Consultants in American Democracy, Edward Walker defines "astroturfing" as public participation that is perceived as heavily incentivized, as fraudulent (claims are attributed to those who did not make such statements), or as an elite campaign masquerading as a mass movement.[14] Although not all campaigns by professional grassroots lobbying consultants meet this definition, the book finds that the elite-sponsored grassroots campaigns often fail when they are not transparent about their sources of sponsorship and/or fail to develop partnerships with constituencies that have an independent interest in the issue. Walker highlights the case of Working Families for Wal-Mart（英语：Working Families for Wal-Mart）, in which the campaign's lack of transparency led to its demise.

A study published in the Journal of Business Ethics examined the effects of websites operated by front groups on students. It found that astroturfing was effective at creating uncertainty and lowering trust about claims, thereby changing perceptions that tend to favor the business interests behind the astroturfing effort.[3] The New York Times reported that "consumer" reviews are more effective, because "they purport to be testimonials of real people, even though some are bought and sold just like everything else on the commercial Internet."[15] Some organizations feel that their business is threatened by negative comments, so they may engage in astroturfing to drown them out.[16] Online comments from astroturfing employees can also sway the discussion through the influence of groupthink.[17]

Justification

Some astroturfing operatives defend their practice.[18] Regarding "movements that have organized aggressively to exaggerate their sway," author Ryan Sager said that this "isn't cheating. Doing everything in your power to get your people to show up is basic politics."[19] According to a Porter/Novelli executive, "There will be times when the position you advocate, no matter how well framed and supported, will not be accepted by the public simply because you are who you are."[20]

Impact on society

Data mining expert Bing Liu (University of Illinois) estimated that one-third of all consumer reviews on the Internet are fake.[15] According to The New York Times, this has made it hard to tell the difference between "popular sentiment" and "manufactured public opinion".[21] According to an article in the Journal of Business Ethics, astroturfing threatens the legitimacy of genuine grassroots movements. The authors argued that astroturfing that is "purposefully designed to fulfill corporate agendas, manipulate public opinion and harm scientific research represents a serious lapse in ethical conduct."[3] A 2011 report found that often paid posters from competing companies are attacking each other in forums and overwhelming regular participants in the process.[22] George Monbiot（英语：George Monbiot） said that persona-management software supporting astroturfing "could destroy the Internet as a forum for constructive debate".[23] An article in the Journal of Consumer Policy said that regulators and policy makers needed to be more aggressive about astroturfing. The author said that it undermines the public's ability to inform potential customers of sub-standard products or inappropriate business practices, but also noted that fake reviews were difficult to detect.[8]

Techniques

Use of one or more front groups is one astroturfing technique. These groups typically present themselves as serving the public interest, while actually working on behalf of a corporate or political sponsor.[24] Front groups may resist legislation and scientific consensus that is damaging to the sponsor's business by emphasizing minority viewpoints, instilling doubt and publishing counterclaims by corporate-sponsored experts.[3] Fake blogs can also be created that appear to be written by consumers, while actually being operated by a commercial or political interest.[25] Some political movements have provided incentives for members of the public to send a letter to the editor at their local paper, often using a copy and paste form letter that is published in dozens of newspapers verbatim.[26]

Another technique is the use of sockpuppets, where a single person creates multiple identities online to give the appearance of grassroots support. Sockpuppets may post positive reviews about a product, attack participants that criticize the organization, or post negative reviews and comments about competitors, under fake identities.[16][27] Astroturfing businesses may pay staff based on the number of posts they make that are not flagged by moderators.[22] Persona management software may be used so that each paid poster can manage five to seventy convincing online personas without getting them confused.[23][28]

Pharmaceutical companies may sponsor patient support groups and simultaneously push them to help market their products.[29] Bloggers who receive free products, paid travel or other accommodations may also be considered astroturfing if those gifts are not disclosed to the reader.[30] Analysts could be considered astroturfing, since they often cover their own clients without disclosing their financial connection. To avoid astroturfing, many organizations and press have policies about gifts, accommodations and disclosures.[31]

Detection

Persona management software can age accounts and simulate the activity of attending a conference automatically to make it more convincing that they are genuine.[32] At HBGary（英语：HBGary）, employees are given separate thumb drives that contain online accounts for individual identities and visual cues to remind the employee which identity they are using at the time.[32]

Mass letters may be printed on personalized stationery using different typefaces, colors and words to make them appear personal.[33]

According to an article in The New York Times, the Federal Trade Commission rarely enforces its astroturfing laws.[15] However, astroturfing operations are frequently detected if their profile images are recognized[34] or if they are identified through the usage patterns of their accounts.[22] Filippo Menczer（英语：Filippo Menczer）'s group at Indiana University developed software in 2010 that detects astroturfing on Twitter by recognizing behavioral patterns.[35][36][37]

Business and adoption

According to an article in the Journal of Consumer Policy, academics disagree on how prolific astroturfing is.[8]

According to Nancy Clark from Precision Communications, grass-roots specialists charge $25 to $75 for each constituent they convince to send a letter to a politician.[33] Paid online commentators in China are purportedly paid 50 cents for each online post that is not removed by moderators,[22] leading to the nickname of the "50-cent party."[17] The New York Times reported that a business selling fake online book reviews charged $999 for 50 reviews and made $28,000 a month shortly after opening.[15]

According to the Financial Times, astroturfing is "commonplace" in American politics, but was "revolutionary" in Europe when it was exposed that the European Privacy Association（英语：European Privacy Association）, an anti-privacy "think-tank", was actually sponsored by technology companies.[38]

History of incidents

Origins

Although the term "astroturfing" was not yet developed, an early example of the practice was in Act 1, Scene 2 of Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar. In the play, Cassius writes fake letters from "the public" to convince Brutus to assassinate Caesar.[12]

The term "astroturfing" was first coined in 1985 by Texas Democratic Party senator Lloyd Bentsen when he said, "a fellow from Texas can tell the difference between grass roots and AstroTurf... this is generated mail."[12][39] Bentsen was describing a "mountain of cards and letters" sent to his office to promote insurance industry interests.[40]

Tobacco

In response to the passage of tobacco control legislation in the US, Philip Morris（英语：Philip Morris USA）, Burson-Marsteller（英语：Burson-Marsteller） and other tobacco interests created the National Smokers Alliance（英语：National Smokers Alliance） (NSA) in 1993. The NSA and other tobacco interests initiated an aggressive public relations campaign from 1994 to 1999 in an effort to exaggerate the appearance of grassroots support for smoker's rights. According to an article in the Journal of Health Communication, the NSA had mixed success at defeating bills that were damaging revenues of tobacco interests.[41]

Internet

Email, automated phone calls, form letters, and the Internet made astroturfing more economical and prolific in the late 1990s.[23][39] In 2001, as Microsoft was defending itself against an antitrust lawsuit, Americans for Technology Leadership（英语：Americans for Technology Leadership） (ATL), a group heavily funded by Microsoft, initiated a letter-writing campaign. ATL contacted constituents under the guise of conducting a poll and sent pro-Microsoft consumers form and sample letters to send to involved lawmakers. The effort was designed to make it appear as though there was public support for a sympathetic ruling in the antitrust lawsuit.[33][42]

In January 2018, YouTube user Isaac Protiva uploaded a video alleging that internet service provider Fidelity Communications（英语：Fidelity Communications） was behind an initiative called "Stop City-Funded Internet," based on how some images on the Stop City-Funded Internet website had "Fidelity" in their file names.[43] The campaign appeared to be in response to the city of West Plains（英语：West Plains, Missouri） expanding their broadband network, and advocated for the end of municipal broadband（英语：municipal broadband） on the basis that it was too risky.[44][45] Days later, Fidelity released a letter admitting to sponsoring the campaign.[46]

Politics

In 2009–2010, an Indiana University research study developed a software system to detect astroturfing on Twitter due to the sensitivity of the topic in the run up to the 2010 U.S. midterm elections and account suspensions on the social media platform. The study cited a limited number of examples, all promoting conservative policies and candidates.[35][36][37]

In 2003, GOPTeamLeader.com offered the site's users "points" that could be redeemed for products if they signed a form letter promoting George Bush and got a local paper to publish it as a letter to the editor（英语：letter to the editor）. More than 100 newspapers published an identical letter to the editor from the site with different signatures on it. Similar campaigns were used by GeorgeWBush.com, and by MoveOn.org（英语：MoveOn.org） to promote Michael Moore's film Fahrenheit 9/11.[26][47] The Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget（英语：Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget）'s "Fix the Debt" campaign advocated to reduce government debt without disclosing that its members were lobbyists or high-ranking employees at corporations that aim to reduce federal spending.[48][49] It also sent op-eds to various students that were published as-is.[50]

Some organizations in the Tea Party movement have been accused of being astroturfed.[51]

In 2018 Jeff Ballabon（英语：Jeff Ballabon）, a Republican operative in his mid-50s, set up a website called "Jexodus" claiming to be by "proud Jewish Millennials tired of living in bondage to leftist politics", but has been denounced as "likely a clumsy astroturf effort rather than an actual grassroots movement".[52][53][54][55] The website was registered November 5, 2018, before the congressional election, and before those representatives accused of anti-Semitism had even been voted in.[55] This website was later cited by Donald Trump as though it were an authentic movement.[52]

Environment

The Koch brothers（英语：Koch family） are known to have started a public advocacy group to prevent the development of wind turbines offshore in Massachusetts. The Kennedy family was also involved.[56][57][58][59][60]

Corporate efforts to mobilize the public against environmental regulation accelerated in the US following the election of president Barack Obama.[61]

In 2014, the Toronto Sun conservative media organization has published an article accusing Russia of using astroturf tactics to drum up anti-fracking sentiment across Europe and the West, supposedly in order to maintain dominance in oil exports through Ukraine.[62]

In Canada, a coalition of oil and gas company executives grouped under the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) also initiated a series of Canadian actions to advocate for the oil and gas industry in Canada through mainstream and social media, and using online campaigning to generate public support for fossil fuel energy projects.[63]

Commercial

In 2006, two Edelman employees created a blog called "Wal-Marting Across America" about two people traveling to Wal-Marts across the country. The blog gave the appearance of being operated by spontaneous consumers, but was actually operated on behalf of Working Families for Walmart（英语：Working Families for Walmart）, a group funded by Wal-Mart.[64][65] In 2007, Ask.com deployed an anti-Google advertising campaign portraying Google as an "information monopoly" that was damaging the Internet. The ad was designed to give the appearance of a popular movement and did not disclose it was funded by a competitor.[66]

In 2010, the Federal Trade Commission settled a complaint with Reverb Communications, who was using interns to post favorable product reviews in Apple's iTunes store for clients.[67] In September 2012, one of the first major identified case of astroturfing in Finland involved criticisms about the cost of a €1.8 billion patient information system, which was defended by fake online identities operated by involved vendors.[34][68]

In September 2013, New York Attorney General Eric T. Schneiderman（英语：Eric T. Schneiderman） announced a settlement with 19 companies to prevent astroturfing. "'Astroturfing' is the 21st century's version of false advertising, and prosecutors have many tools at their disposal to put an end to it," said Scheiderman. The companies paid $350,000 to settle the matter, but the settlement opened the way for private suits as well. "Every state has some version of the statutes New York used," according to lawyer Kelly H. Kolb. "What the New York attorney general has done is, perhaps, to have given private lawyers a road map to file suit."[69][70]

State-sponsored

An Al Jazeera four part mini-series documented Israel's attempt to promote more friendly, pro-Israel rhetoric to influence the attitudes of British youth, namely through influencing already established political bodies, such as the National Union of Students and the Labour Party, or through the creation of other bodies not directly affiliated with the Israeli administration（英语：government of Israel）.[71]

In 2008, an expert on Chinese affairs, Rebecca MacKinnon, estimated the country employed 280,000 in a government-sponsored astroturfing operation to post pro-China propaganda and drown out voices of dissent.[22][72]

In June 2010, the United States Air Force solicited for "persona management" software that would "enable an operator to exercise a number of different online persons from the same workstation and without fear of being discovered by sophisticated adversaries. Personas must be able to appear to originate in nearly any part of the world and can interact through conventional online services and social media platforms..."[73] The $2.6 million contract was awarded to Ntrepid（英语：Ntrepid） Corporation for astroturfing software the military would use to spread pro-American propaganda in the Middle East, and disrupt extremist propaganda and recruitment. The contract is thought to have been awarded as part of a program called Operation Earnest Voice（英语：Operation Earnest Voice）, which was first developed as a psychological warfare weapon against the online presence of groups ranged against coalition forces.[23][74][75][76]

See also

References

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Further reading

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