東非戰役 (第一次世界大戰)
東非戰役 (第一次世界大戰) | |||||||||
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第一次世界大戰非洲戰場的一部分 | |||||||||
德屬東非一支殖民地阿斯卡利連準備進軍 | |||||||||
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參戰方 | |||||||||
指揮官與領導者 | |||||||||
揚·史末資 雅各布·范·德文特 亞瑟·霍斯金斯 夏爾·通伯爾 阿爾芒·於蓋 費雷拉·吉爾 若昂·特謝拉·平托 † |
保羅·馮·萊托-福爾貝克 海因里希·施尼(被俘) 庫爾特·瓦勒 | ||||||||
兵力 | |||||||||
大英帝國 最初:2個營[1] 12,000–20,000名士兵 總計:250,000名士兵[2] 600,000名搬運工[3] |
正規軍(德國保護軍) 最初:2,700人[a] 最多:18,000人[b] 1918年:1,283人[c] 總計:22,000人[d] 非正規軍(魯加魯加)12,000人以上[7][e]。 | ||||||||
傷亡與損失 | |||||||||
22,000人
| 7,000名搬運工死亡[6] | ||||||||
365,000名平民在戰爭中的饑荒死去[i]
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第一次世界大戰的東非戰役包含一系列的戰役與游擊戰,最初在德屬東非爆發,後來戰事延伸到葡屬東非、北羅德西亞、英屬東非、烏干達保護國以及比屬剛果。德屬東非的戰事在1917年11月幾乎結束,因為德軍當時進入葡屬莫三比克,並以葡軍補給為生繼續作戰[14]。
由保羅·馮·萊托-福爾貝克中校(後晉升少將)所率領的德國殖民地部隊,其戰略是牽制協約國在西方戰線的部隊,迫使其調軍非洲。1916年之後,他的戰略只取得了喜憂參半的結果,因為德軍在該年被趕出德屬東非,而協約國部隊則變成幾乎由南非、印度及其他殖民地的部隊所組成。由於政策緣故,英國並不考慮將南非黑人部隊投入歐洲戰事,而所有的英屬印度軍隊在1915年底前都已撤出西方戰線。非洲戰事消耗及大量的金錢與戰爭物資,而這些本可用於其他戰線[2][15]。
東非德軍的戰鬥貫穿了整場世界大戰,並一直持續至1918年11月14日早上7點30分接到停戰消息時。當時雙方都在等待確認,直到11月25日德軍才正式投降。德屬東非變成兩塊國際聯盟第二等託管地:英國的坦噶尼喀及比利時的盧安達-烏隆地,而基翁加三角則割讓給葡萄牙。
註解
- ^ 含200名歐裔士兵及2,500名阿斯卡利[4]。
- ^ 含3,000名歐裔士兵及15,000名阿斯卡利[5]。
- ^ 含115名歐裔士兵及1,168名阿斯卡利[5]。
- ^ 含5,000名歐裔士兵及17,000名阿斯卡利[6]。
- ^ 為德國服役的非正規軍真正數量未知,而英國陸軍部則估計為12,000人。為德國而戰的魯加魯加也是隨著實際情形波動,他們時而戰鬥、時而離開或開小差[8]
- ^ 根據Clodfelter所述,包含1,290名阿斯卡利及739名德國人(100名軍官);874名德國人負傷(也包括被俘者)[6]
- ^ 根據Clodfelter所述,包含2,487名阿斯卡利及2名德國人[12]。
- ^ 根據Clodfelter所述,包含2,847名德國人及4,275名阿斯卡利[6]。
- ^ 因戰爭原因喪生的非洲平民比例:肯亞30,000人、坦桑尼亞100,000人、莫三比克50,000人、盧安達15,000人、蒲隆地20,000人以及比屬剛果150,000人[13]。
註腳
- ^ Miller 1974,第41頁.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 Holmes 2001,第359頁.
- ^ Garfield 2007,第274頁.
- ^ Contey 2002,第46頁.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 Crowson 2003,第87頁.
- ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Clodfelter 2017,第416頁.
- ^ Pesek (2014),第94頁.
- ^ Pesek (2014),第94-97頁.
- ^ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Morlang 2008,第91頁.
- ^ Paice 2007,第388頁.
- ^ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Michels 2009,第117頁.
- ^ Clodfelter 2017,第415頁.
- ^ Erlikman 2004,第88頁.
- ^ Holmes 2001,第361頁.
- ^ Strachan 2004,第642頁.
傳記
書籍
- Anderson, Ross. The Forgotten Front: The East Africa Campaign, 1914–1918. Stroud: Tempus. 2004. ISBN 978-0-7524-2344-9.
- Chappell, Mike. The British Army in World War I: The Eastern Fronts III. Oxford: Osprey. 2005. ISBN 978-1-84176-401-6.
- Clodfelter, M. Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopaedia of Casualty and other Figures, 1492–2015 4th. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. 2017. ISBN 978-0-7864-7470-7.
- Corbett, J. S. Naval Operations. History of the Great War based on Official Documents I 2nd repr. Imperial War Museum and Naval & Military Press. London: Longmans, Green. 2009 [1938] [2018-01-18]. ISBN 978-1-84342-489-5.
- Crowson, T. A. When Elephants Clash. A Critical Analysis of Major General Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck in the East African Theatre of the Great War. NTIS, Springfield, VA.: Storming Media. 2003. OCLC 634605194.
- Erlikman, Vadim. Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke [Population Losses in the Twentieth Century: A Handbook]. Moscow: Russkai︠a︡ panorama. 2004. ISBN 978-5-93165-107-1.
- Farwell, B. The Great War in Africa, 1914–1918. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1989. ISBN 978-0-393-30564-7.
- Foden, G. Mimi and Toutou Go Forth: The Bizarre Battle for Lake Tanganyika. London: Penguin Books. 2004. ISBN 978-0-14-100984-1.
- Garfield, Brian. The Meinertzhagen Mystery. Washington, DC: Potomac Books. 2007. ISBN 978-1-59797-041-9.
- Hordern, C. Military Operations East Africa: August 1914 – September 1916 I Imperial War Museum & Battery Press. London: HMSO. 1990 [1941]. ISBN 978-0-89839-158-9.
- Holmes, Richard. The Oxford Companion to Military History. Oxford University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-860696-3.
- Hoyt, E. P. Guerilla: Colonel von Lettow-Vorbeck and Germany's East African Empire. New York: MacMillan. 1981. ISBN 978-0-02-555210-4.
- Michels, Stefanie. Schwarze Deutsche Kolonialsoldaten. Mehrdeutige Repräsentationsräume und früher Kosmopolitismus in Afrika [Black German Colonial Soldiers. Ambiguous Representational Spaces and Former Cosmopolitanism in Africa]. Histoire Transcript (Firm). Bielefeld: transcript Verlag. 2009. ISBN 978-3-8376-1054-3 (德語).
|issue=
被忽略 (幫助) - Miller, C. Battle for the Bundu: The First World War in East Africa. New York: MacMillan. 1974. ISBN 978-0-02-584930-3.
- Morlang, Thomas. Askari und Fitafita. "Farbige" Söldner in den deutschen Kolonien [Askari and Fitafita. 'Colored' Mercenaries in the German Colonies]. Schlaglichter der Kolonialgeschichte. Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. 2008. ISBN 978-3-86153-476-1 (德語).
|issue=
被忽略 (幫助) - Newbolt, H. History of the Great War Based on Official Documents: Naval Operations IV Naval & Military Press. London: Longmans. 2003 [1928] [2016-01-18]. ISBN 978-1-84342-492-5.
- Paice, E. Tip and Run: The Untold Tragedy of the Great War in Africa Phoenix. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 2009 [2007]. ISBN 978-0-7538-2349-1.
- Louis, Wm. Roger. Ruanda-Urundi, 1884–1919. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1963. OCLC 445674.
- Sondhaus, L. World War One: The Global Revolution. London: Cambridge University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-521-73626-8.
- Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920 online. London: War Office. 1920 [2016-11-23]. OCLC 1318955.
- Strachan, H. The First World War: To Arms I pbk. Oxford: OUP. 2003 [2001]. ISBN 978-0-19-926191-8.
- Strachan, H. The First World War in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-19-925728-7.
- Willmott, H. P. First World War. London: Dorling Kindersley. 2003. ISBN 978-1-4053-0029-2.
期刊
- Alexander, G. A. M. The Evacuation of Kasama in 1918. The Northern Rhodesia Journal. 1961, IV (5) [2007-03-07]. ISSN 0549-9674. (原始內容存檔於2019-05-22).
- Annuaire statistique de la Belgique et du Congo Belge 1915–1919 [Statistics of Belgium and the Belgian Congo Annual]. Bruxelles: Institut national de statistique for Ministère des affaires économiques. 1922. ISSN 0770-2221.
- Contey, F. Zeppelin Mission to East Africa. Aviation History (Weider History Group). 2002, XIII (1). ISSN 1076-8858.
網站
- Chantrill, C. Spending / Pie Chart 1914. ukpublicspending co uk. 2016-11-29 [2016-11-29]. (原始內容存檔於2017-02-18).
延伸閱讀
書籍
- Abbott, P. Armies in East Africa 1914–1918. Osprey. 2002. ISBN 978-1-84176-489-4.
- Calvert, A. F. South-West Africa During the German Occupation, 1884–1914. London: T. W. Laurie. 1915 [2014-03-02]. OCLC 7534413.
- Calvert, A. F. German East Africa. London: T. W. Laurie. 1917 [2014-03-02]. OCLC 1088504.
- Clifford, H. C. The Gold Coast Regiment in the East African Campaign Naval & Military Press. London: John Murray. 2013 [1920] [2014-03-23]. ISBN 978-1-78331-012-8.
- Dane, E. British Campaigns in Africa and the Pacific, 1914–1918. London: Hodder and Stoughton. 1919 [2014-03-02]. OCLC 2460289.
- Difford, I. D. The Story of the 1st Battalion Cape Corps, 1915–1919. Cape Town: Hortors. 1920 [2014-03-02]. OCLC 13300378.
- Downes, W. D. With the Nigerians in German East Africa. London: Methuen. 1919 [2014-03-03]. OCLC 10329057.
- Fendall, C. P. The East African Force 1915–1919 Battery Press. London: H. F. & G. Witherby. 1992 [1921] [2014-02-25]. ISBN 978-0-89839-174-9.
- Frenssen, G. Peter Moors Fahrt nach Südwest [Peter Moor's Journey to South-West Africa: A Narrative of the German Campaign] Houghton Mifflin, NY. Berlin: Grote. 1914 [1906] [2014-03-02]. OCLC 2953336.
- Gardner, B. On to Kilimanjaro. Philadelphia: Macrae Smith. 1963. ISBN 978-1-111-04620-0.
- Hodges, G. (編). The Carrier Corps: The Story of the Military Labor Forces in the Conquest of German East Africa, 1914–1919 2nd revised. Nairobi: Nairobi University Press. 1999. OCLC 605134579.
- Hoyt, E. P. The Germans Who Never Lost. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 1968. ISBN 978-0-09-096400-0.
- Millais, J. G. Life of Frederick Courtenay Selous, D.S.O., Capt. 25th Royal Fusiliers. London: Longmans, Green. 1919 [2014-03-02]. OCLC 5322545.
- Mosley, L. Duel for Kilimanjaro: An Account of the East African Campaign 1914–1918. New York: Ballantine Books. 1963. OCLC 655839799.
- Northrup, D. Beyond the Bend in the River: African Labor in Eastern Zaire, 1865–1940. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Center for International Studies. 1988 [2014-03-03]. ISBN 978-0-89680-151-6.
- Patience, K. Konigsberg: A German East African Raider 2001 revised. Bahrain: Author. 1997. OCLC 223264994.
- Pesek, Michael. Ruga-ruga: The History of an African Profession, 1820–1918. Nina Berman; Klaus Mühlhahn; Patrice Nganang (編). German Colonialism Revisited: African, Asian, and Oceanic Experiences. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. 2014: 85–100.
- Rutherford, A. Kaputala: The Diary of Arthur Beagle & The East Africa Campaign 1916–1918. Hand Over Fist Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-9540517-0-9.
- Sheppard, S. H. Some Notes on Tactics in the East African Campaign. India: Simla?. 1919 [2014-03-02]. OCLC 609954711.
- Sibley, J. R. Tanganyikan Guerilla. New York: Ballantine Books. 1973. ISBN 978-0-345-09801-6.
- Stapleton, T. The Rhodesia Native Regiment and the East Africa Campaign of the First World War. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-88920-498-0.
- Stevenson, W. The Ghosts of Africa. New York: Ballantine Books. 1981. ISBN 978-0-345-29793-8.
- Whittall, W. With Botha and Smuts in Africa. London: Cassell. 1917 [2014-03-02]. OCLC 3504908.
- Young, F. B. Marching on Tanga. New York: E. P. Dutton. 1917. OCLC 717640690.
論文
- Anderson, R. World War I in East Africa, 1916–1918. theses.gla.ac.uk (學位論文) (University of Glasgow). 2001 [2014-07-02]. OCLC 498854094. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.252464. (原始內容存檔於2020-09-20).
外部連結
- The Evacuation of Kasama in 1918 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- The German East Africa Campaign 1914–1918 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- The War with Germany in East Africa (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Rutherford, Alan. Kaputala, 2nd edition, Hand Over Fist Press, 2014.
- The Zeppelin Airship Era
- Cana, Frank R. East Africa, Military Operations. Encyclopædia Britannica 30 第12版: 875–886. 1922.
- Digre, Brian : Colonial Warfare and Occupation (Africa) (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館), in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館).