幽靈圖
幽靈圖(日語:幽霊図/ゆうれいず Yūrei zu)是由鬼魂、惡魔和其他鬼神為題材的日本繪畫流派。而幽靈圖也被認為是日本的風俗畫,[1]於19世紀末的幕末時期最為盛行。[2]
幽靈的定義
幽靈可包括化身物、妖怪、死靈(亡靈(日語:亡霊)等。信仰超自然生物是日本的一項悠久傳統。幽靈的來源包括佛教,道教和中國民間傳說。最顯着的影響,是日本神道的泛靈論,它指出我們的物質世界是由800萬無所不在的鬼神所組成。[3]
日本的鬼魂基本上是從地府中為了完成一個優秀的使命而「請假」外出。[4]而日本的靈魂(日語:霊魂)則是那些枉死、死無葬身之地、或死後有着強烈的怨念、以及無主孤魂。而他們的「靈魂」實現了願望後,則可以轉世。[5]根據糅合佛教及民間信仰的思想,從現世(日語:この世)到靈界(日語:あの世)需要七七四十九天,而在中陰身,他們可以在這段期間解決現世未解決的問題。[6]而個人一生的痛苦程度與他們在前世的惡行嚴重程度有密切的關係。[7]雖然幽靈們的意圖並不總是邪惡的,但他們的行動的結果卻幾乎總是對人類有害。[4]而有信仰認為,鬼魂只能通過一名在世的人的祈禱來得到釋放,他的靈魂才能被允許進入冥界。[3]
歷史背景
存在於日本畫卷的幽靈形象,以及血腥和怪誕的場景軸可以追溯到平安時代,而這個傳統一直持續到近幾個世紀以來,[8] 例如「幽靈畫」在19世紀後期達到流行巔峰狀態,[2]與幽靈相關的「歌舞伎」以及與幽靈相關的怪談。[1]學術機構「persistent popularity」[9]認為這種神秘物是在「不穩定的社會條件」的江戶後期盛行,[2]其中包括普遍存在壓迫的德川幕府政權、西方的入侵以及一些自然災害。 [10][11]
幽靈圖及戲劇
日本的鬼故事有着悠久的民俗傳統,在江戶時代初開始便成為戲劇題材。[3]至於歌舞伎在18世紀後開始流行,也創作出了很多以幽靈為題材的戲劇。[3]
審查
德川政權試圖恢復其封建農業基礎,於1842年開始進行天保改革(日語:天保の改革),改革涉及到日常生活的許多方面。除了經濟、軍事、農業、宗教外,還包括藝術。[12]改革的目的是從根本上穩定物價和令人民忠於政權,[13]而在藝術領域的改革使得如藝妓、花魁等妓女和歌舞伎題材作品被禁止。[14]1842年老中水野忠邦下令禁買賣歌舞伎伶人、遊女和藝妓等被認為是有傷風化版畫。促使了浮世繪轉向非現實題材發展[13]。
參見
腳註
- ^ 1.0 1.1 Schaap 1998, 17
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Addis 1985, 178
- ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Rubin 2000
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Richie 1983, 7
- ^ Monstrous.com
- ^ Iwasaki and Toelken 1994, 15
- ^ Jordan 1985, 27
- ^ Fensom 2012
- ^ Bell 2004, 140
- ^ See Addis 1985, 178; Rubin 2000; Harris 2010, 156; Schaap 1998, 17
- ^ In addition to floods and earthquakes, Japan was blighted by a series of droughts which led to twenty periods of famine between 1675 and 1837 (Dolan and Worden 1994)
- ^ 《大英百科全書》中天保改革。
- ^ 13.0 13.1 The Fitzwilliam Museum
- ^ Harris 2010, 156
參考資料
- Addis, Stephen. 「Conclusion: The Supernatural in Japanese Art.」 In Japanese Ghosts and Demons: Art of the Supernatural, edited by Stephen Addis, 177-179. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1985.
- Art History Reference. "Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795)." Accessed September 14, 2013. http://arthistoryreference.com/a1/54567.htm (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Bell, David. Ukiyo-e Explained. Kent, UK: Global Oriental, 2004.
- Chiappa, J. Noel and Levine, Jason M. "Yoshitoshi's 'One Hundred Ghost Stories of China and Japan(1865)." Yoshitoshi.net. 2009. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.yoshitoshi.net/series/100ghosts.html (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Chin Music Press. "The Ghost of Oyuki." Accessed September 13, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131008080519/http://store.chinmusicpress.com/product/the-ghost-of-oyuki-chapbook
- Davisson, Zack. "What is the White Kimono Japanese Ghosts Wear?" April 2012. Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai. Accessed September 2013. http://hyakumonogatari.com/2012/04/04/what-is-the-white-kimono-japanese-ghosts-wear/ (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Dolan, Ronald E. and Worden, Robert L., editors. Japan: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1994. Accessed September 16, 2013. http://countrystudies.us/japan/21.htm (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Maruyama Ōkyo." Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2013. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/367211/Maruyama-Okyo (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Encyclopaedia Britannica. "Tempō Reforms." Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 2013. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/586929/Tempo-reforms (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Fensom, Sarah E. 「Lucid Dreams & Nightmares.」 Art & Antiques Worldwide Media, LLC. October 2012. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.artandantiquesmag.com/2012/10/japanese-woodblock-prints/ (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Harris, Frederick. Ukiyo-e: The Art of the Japanese Print. Tokyo: Tuttle, 2010.
- Iwasaki, Michiko and Barre Toelken. Ghosts and the Japanese Cultural Experience in Japanese Death Legends. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 1994.
- Japan Echo. "Beauty and the Ghosts: Young Painter Takes Japan's Art World by Storm." June 22, 2006. Web Japan. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://web-japan.org/trends/arts/art060622.html (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Jesse, Bernd. "The Golden Age of the Utagawa School: Utagawa Kunisada and Utagawa Kuniyoshi." In Samurai Stars of the Stage and Beautiful Women: Kunisada and Kuniyoshi Masters of the Color Woodblock Print, edited by Stiftung Museum Kunstpalat, Gunda Luyken and Beat Wismer, 93-101. Düsseldorf: Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2012.
- Jordan, Brenda. 「Yūrei: Tales of Female Ghosts.」 In Japanese Ghosts and Demons: Art of the Supernatural, edited by Stephen Addis, 25-33. New York: George Braziller Inc., 1985.
- Liddell, C.B. 「Nihonga to Nihonga: Young, Fresh and Traditional Artists.」 Japan Times. March 9, 2006. Accessed September 14, 2013. http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2006/03/09/culture/young-fresh-and-traditional-japanese-artists/#.UjUVUNJJ6s0 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Meyer, Matthew. "Artwork: Japanese Yokai." Matthew Meyer. 2012. Accessed September 16, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20140903055358/http://matthewmeyer.net/artwork/japanese-mythology/
- Monstrous.com. "Japanese Ghosts." 2011. Accessed September 17, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131110081630/http://ghosts.monstrous.com/japanese_ghosts/all_pages.htm
- Richie, Donald. 「The Japanese Ghost.」 In Yoshitoshi’s Thirty-six Ghosts, edited by John Stevenson, 6-9. New York: Blue Tiger, 1983.
- Rubin, Norman A. "Ghosts, Demons and Spirits in Japanese Lore." Asianart.com. Accessed Sept. 9, 2013. http://www.asianart.com/articles/rubin/ (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Stevenson, John. Yoshitoshi’s Thirty-six Ghosts. New York: Blue Tiger, 1983.
- Schaap, Robert. Heroes and Ghosts: Japanese Prints by Kuniyoshi 1797-1861. Leiden: Hotei Publishing, 1998.
- Tenmyouya, Hisashi. "天明屋 尚 [Tenmyouya Hisashi]." Accessed September 15, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130531054002/http://www3.ocn.ne.jp/~tenmyoya/biography/biography.html
- The Fitzwilliam Museum. "Luxury and Censorship." Fitzwilliam Museum Kunisada and Kabuki Web Site. Accessed September 17, 2013. http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/gallery/japan/gallery/info%20kun.htm (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
外部連結
- http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnveMIhKnSA (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) - link to YouTube video of interview with Mizuki Shigeru on Japan's ghosts