中世紀溫暖時期
中世紀溫暖時期(Medieval Warm Period, MWP)是指北大西洋地區內由公元10世紀到13世紀所出現一個不正常溫暖的時期。
在氣象記錄中,不同地區的暖化峰值出現的時間不同,表明中世紀暖期不是全球統一的事件。[1]中世紀溫暖時期常常成為全球變暖的討論課題。有些人則稱呼為中世紀氣候異常(Medieval Climatic Anomaly),藉此強調其他氣候現象與溫度同等重要。[2][3]
MWP之後,北大西洋與其他地區出現了區域性降溫期,常常稱作小冰期(Little Ice Age, LIA)。
MWP的可能成因包括太陽活動增加、火山活動減少、洋流變化等。[4]模擬證據表明,自然變化不足以解釋MWP,成因中必定有其他外部因素。[5]
研究
中世紀溫暖時期的氣候十分不正常,當時正值歐洲的中世紀,大約在8世紀至13世紀[7]。歐洲已經進行大量關於中世紀溫暖時期及小冰期的初步研究,氣候不正常的現象已經很明顯及有清晰的記錄。有研究者認為在一般認為的中世紀暖期前還有「早期中世紀暖期」(MWP-I),大約從5世紀持續到9世紀末。11至13世紀的則是「傳統中世紀暖期」(MWP-II)。[8]1965年,古氣候學先驅之一Hubert Lamb發表了基於植物學、歷史記錄、氣象學數據的研究,得到公元1200年和公元1600年前後英格蘭的平均氣溫與降水。他認為:「各方面數據暗示,世界上很多地區都曾經歷過一個暖期,在11至12世紀左右、至少有上百年。之後的16、17世紀則是冷期,是末次冰期以來最冷的時期。」[9] 「中世紀暖期」和「小冰期」的說法很快流行開來亞洲地區影響最大大約是在公元950年至1150年,相當於中國的北宋時期(960年至1127年)。當初認為溫度的改變是全球性的。可是,這個觀點很快受到質疑,如1990年的IPCC第一次評估報告中稱「公元1000年前後的中世紀暖期(可能不是全球性事件)與19世紀中晚期才結束的小冰期……西歐、冰島和格陵蘭10世紀晚期至13世紀初(大約AD950–1250)的溫度異常地高。」[10]2001年的IPCC第三次評估報告概括了這項研究,指出「現在的證據沒法支持當時全球同步地發生不規則的冷暖轉變的論調,傳統所指的小冰期及中世紀溫暖時期只能有限地描述北半球或全球在過去幾個世紀中平均氣溫的改變。」[11] 全球的冰芯、樹木年輪、湖床沉積等氣象記錄表明,全球範圍內中世紀暖期可能比20世紀早中期略低0.03°C。[12][13]
古氣候學家重建特定地區過去幾個世紀的氣候時,通常將最冷的時期稱作「LIA」,將最暖的時期稱作「MWP」。[12][14]其他人則遵循這一慣例,當LIA或MWP時期內發生重大氣候事件,就將其與時期聯繫起來。因此,文獻中一部分「MWP事件」實際上是潮濕事件或寒冷事件,並非嚴格意義上的溫暖事件。特別是南極洲中部,那裡的氣候模式同北大西洋幾乎是相反的。
中世紀暖期的全球氣候
MWP的性質與範圍(是否是全球性事件)一直有爭議。[15][16]2019年,PAGES-2k聯盟通過廣大的數據集證實[17],中世紀氣候異常不是全球同步事件:各個地區在MWP中最溫暖的51年不同時。他們主張對公元以來、工業化前的氣候變化進行區域性分析。[18]
發生事件
北大西洋地區
對馬尾藻海洋底沉積物箱式取樣數據的碳14定年顯示,400年前(小冰期)與1700年前的海面溫度比現在低1 °C ;而1000年前(MWP)的海洋表面溫度比現在高1 °C 。[19] 波多黎各、墨西哥灣沿岸、佛羅里達到新英格蘭的大西洋沿岸的證據一致表明,北大西洋熱帶颶風活動在中世紀溫暖期達到一個高峰,隨後處於暫時的安靜期[20]。
中世紀溫暖時期,北極海域的浮冰大量減少,使古斯堪地納維亞人(或稱維京人)能橫越北大西洋,抵達格陵蘭和北美東岸,促成了與因紐特人的短暫相遇。
冰島
冰島最早有人定居大約在865年到930年之間,當時人們認為冰島足夠溫暖,適合發展航海與畜牧。[21][22]研究分析洋底沉積物與軟體動物生長模式,重建了羅馬溫暖期到MWP與小冰期的10年分辨率尺度氧18、碳13同位素記錄。[23]該研究發現,在冰島有人定居後,夏季氣溫仍在高位,但冬季氣溫有所降低。[23]
格陵蘭
格陵蘭島南部和北美洲部分地區在MWP(研究中定義為公元950–1250年)期間的溫度超過了1961–1990年水平,部分地區甚至超過1990–2010年水平。北半球大部在小冰期(研究中定義為15–17世紀)出現明顯降溫,但拉布拉多和美國個別地區的溫度似乎與1961–1990年水平大致相同。[7]MWP期間格陵蘭冬季氧同位素數據同北大西洋濤動(NAO)高度相關。[24]
諾斯人殖民北美可能同暖期有關。[25]一般認為,諾斯人在暖期可以橫穿不封凍的洋面,殖民格陵蘭和臨近島嶼沿岸地區。[26]不過,哥倫比亞大學的一份研究表明,格陵蘭不是在較暖的時期被殖民的,格陵蘭的暖期只持續了很短時間。[27]公元1000年前後,足夠溫暖的氣候能支持維京人前往紐芬蘭島,建立臨時定居點。[28]
985年左右,維京人建立了格陵蘭東殖民地與格陵蘭西殖民地,都在格陵蘭島南端附近。他們在殖民初期放牧牛羊過活,並有約四分之一食物是海產。1250年之後,氣候變得更加惡劣,他們的飲食結構便向海產轉移。到1300年前後,鰭足類(海豹)占食物來源的超過四分之三。
到1350年,格陵蘭定居點的出口已經很少,同歐洲的貿易基本停滯。最後的關於定居者的記錄是一份1412年的文獻,之後幾十年裡,居民似乎因為經濟原因陸續返回了歐洲。[29]
歐洲地區
在這段時期,南歐經歷了大規模冰川消退,一些較小的冰川完全消融。[30]沉積記錄顯示,東歐的洪澇多發時期同MWP吻合,這歸因於北大西洋濤動正相導致的降水增加。[31]釀酒用的葡萄能夠遍佈歐洲,最北達英國南部。大西洋鯡魚盛產,鹽醃鯡魚的消費幾乎遍及歐陸,甚至一度成為軍糧與繳稅物。[32][33][34] 氣候變化的其他影響(如對地貌的影響)不那麼顯然。MWP之前,撒丁島西部的沿海地區被羅馬人遺棄,沿海地區得以向潟湖擴張,並在MWP期間到達高水位。地貌因氣候變化而變化後,回到這裡定居的人只得重新建立港口。[35]在伊比利亞中央山脈,湖泊生產力提高、土壤侵蝕加劇,高強度徑流事件頻繁發生。[36]
北美洲
切薩皮克灣(位於今美國馬里蘭州、弗吉尼亞州)在MWP(950–1250年)和小冰期(1400–1700,冷期持續到20世紀初)經歷了大規模溫度漂移,可能同北大西洋溫鹽環流的強度變化有關。[37]哈德遜河谷下游的皮埃蒙沼澤沉積物表明,當地9到13世紀經歷了干期。[38]康涅狄格州哈莫克河鹽沼因為較高的海平面,比現在向西延伸15公里。[39]
長期乾旱影響今日美國西部的很多地區,特別是加利福尼亞州東部與大盆地西部。[12][40]公元以來,阿拉斯加經歷了3個可比較的溫暖期:1–300,850–1200,1800以來。[41]對北美洲MWP的了解有助於確定一些原住民遺址的年代,特別是西部乾旱地區。[42][43]美國東南部的乾旱,MWP期間稍稍多於LIA期間,差異在統計上可能並不顯著。[44]MWP期間的乾旱可能也影響了美國東部的原住民定居點,如卡霍基亞土墩遺址。[45][46]對近期考古研究的回顧表明,隨着不尋常的文化變遷跡象逐漸進入學界視野,暴力與健康問題等早期模式比以前認為的更複雜,地區差異也更大。定居點中斷、長途貿易惡化、人口遷移等模式也得到了進一步證實。[47]
非洲
赤道東部非洲的氣候在相對今日乾燥與潮濕之間變化。MWP(1000–1270)期間,是相對乾旱。[48]對加那利群島居民遺體的放射性定年法測年表明,MWP到LIA的過渡期間,當地氣溫至少下降了5°C。之後,當地居民的飲食結構不再經歷顯著變化。[49]
南極洲
MWP在南大洋的出現比北大西洋晚約150年。[50]從南極半島東Bransfield盆地取到的岩芯樣本保存了LIA和MWP事件的證據。Khim B. (2002)認為:「全新世晚期記錄清晰地保留了新冰期事件LIA和MWP。」[51]1000-1200年間,南極洲部分地區額外偏冷、部分地區額外偏熱。[52]
熱帶太平洋珊瑚礁的分析,在公元2000年的早期,氣候是寒冷乾燥的,相等於拉尼娜現象[53]。澳大利亞艾爾湖地貌表明[54]9至10世紀的氣候類似於拉尼娜現象。
太平洋
太平洋熱帶珊瑚礁表明,相對涼爽乾燥的氣候可能在第1千紀早期持續存在,ENSO也維持在類拉尼娜的狀態。[55] 一份2013年的研究指出,太平洋海水在MWP期間比LIA期間高0.9度,比研究前的10年平均值高0.65度。[56]
南美洲
在智利的一份1500年湖床岩芯[57]與厄瓜多爾中部山脈岩芯記錄都可以觀察到MWP。[58]
基於冰芯的重建發現,南美洲熱帶的MWP大約從1050年持續到1300年,之後是15世紀開始的小冰期。20世紀末溫度超過MWP,是1600年以來最熱的時期。[59]
東亞
對中國過去2000年間的氣溫進行的確定性分析中,發現16世紀之前呈現高度的不確定性,而近500年來則在全國有良好的一致性,有1620–1710年代與1800–1860年代兩個顯著冷期,以及20世紀以來的變暖期。他們還發現,10到14世紀部分地區的變暖幅度堪比20世紀末,是過去500年未見的。[60]總的來說,中國在MWP時期經歷過暖期,但在全國範圍內看是不一致的:MWP到小冰期的溫度變化在東北、中東部地區顯著,但在西南地區和青藏高原不顯著。[61]MWP期間,東亞夏季季風(EASM)達到近1千年來最強,[62]且對ENSO高度敏感。[63]毛烏素沙漠在MWP期間持續變得潮濕,[64]東南地區的泥炭岩芯表明,EASM和ENSO變化是導致MWP期間降水增加的主要原因。[65]華南的一些樣本則顯示出MWP期間變干或無顯著變化,顯示出MWP影響的空間異質性。[66]模擬表明,MWP期間的EASM強度在初夏較低,但在夏末非常高。[67]
俄羅斯遠東大陸地區在MWP期間經歷嚴重的洪澇,鄰近島嶼的降水則變少,致使泥炭地面積減小。花粉數據表明暖氣候植被和闊葉林擴張,針葉林收縮。[68] 對日本中部中綱湖的沉積物研究中,發現10至12世紀有對應於MWP的暖期與3個冷期,其中兩個可以對應小冰期。[69]對日本東北部的研究表明公元以來750年到1200年有一暖濕階段,之前與之後都是冷干階段。[70]
南亞
南亞夏季季風(ISM)同樣在MWP期間增強,對大西洋多年代際振盪(AMO)有受溫度變化驅使的影響,[71]給印度帶來了更多降水。[72]喜馬偕爾邦拉豪爾和斯皮提縣的植被記錄表明距今1158年至647年前有暖濕期。[73]中央邦花粉記錄為增強的季風降水提供了直接證據。[74]喀拉拉邦Pookode湖記錄也反映了MWP期間的偏暖。[75]
中東
阿拉伯海海面溫度在MWP期間因較強的季風而升高。[76]MWP期間,阿拉伯海生物生產力增加。[77]今日已十分乾旱的阿拉伯半島在MWP期間更乾旱,長期乾旱直到距今約660年前才終止。[78]
大洋洲
澳洲關於MWP和小冰期的數據嚴重匱乏,而從浪成卵石灘台地可以看出,9、10世紀間艾爾湖一直在高水位[79],符合類拉尼娜狀態,但數據不足以說明湖面每年的變化,也不足以說明澳洲其他地方氣候條件如何。
由新西蘭一處洞穴(40.67°S, 172.43°E)中石筍的氧同位素比得到的溫度表明,中世紀暖期發生在約1050年至約1400年間,比當前暖期(Current Warm Period)的溫度高約0.75度。[80]新西蘭的更多證據來自有1100年歷史的年輪記錄。[81]
另見
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閱讀更多
- Fagan, Brian. The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300–1850. Basic Books. 2000. ISBN 978-0-465-02272-4.
- Fagan, Brian. The Great Warming: Climate Change and the Rise and Fall of Civilizations. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2009. ISBN 9781596913929.
- Lamb, Hubert. Climate, History, and the Modern World: Second Edition. Routledge. 1995.
- Staff members at NOAA Paleoclimatology. The "Medieval Warm Period". A Paleo Perspective...on Global Warming. NOAA Paleoclimatology. 2000-05-19.
外部連結
- HistoricalClimatology.com, further links, resources, and relevant news, updated 2016
- Climate History Network
- The Little Ice Age and Medieval Warm Period at the American Geophysical Union