时尚产业对环境的影响
系列之一 |
服装与 环境 |
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时尚产业对环境的影响 |
论及时尚产业对环境的影响 (英语:Environmental impact of fashion)首先要提到的是此产业中,特别是服装和鞋类的制造和使用,是推动全球温室气体排放和塑胶污染的重要因素。[1]快时尚的快速增长导致每年受消费者购买的服装达到约达800亿件。而在美国,被抛弃的服装中约有85%是送入垃圾掩埋场处置。[2]
而仅不到百分之一的衣服会被回收后再制成新衣服。[3]时尚产业导致的温室气体排放量估计占全球的10%。[4]时装中用到的农产、纤维和服装的生产和销售都会造成不同形式的环境污染,包括水污染、空气污染和土壤退化。[5][6]时装产业对淡水造成的污染程度在世界排名第二,[7]且占工业水污染的大约五分之一。[8]造成污染的主要因素是时尚产品的生产过剩、[9]采用合成纤维、生产相关农产造成的农业污染,[10]以及超细纤维在全球水源中的扩散。[3]
一些零售商和消费者正努力促进采用永续时尚,例如减少浪费、提高能源和用水效率,以及使用环保材料。对抗快时尚的运动,例如慢时尚,也因前者迅速增长而开始形成中。[11]
快时尚
快时尚被定义为”一种服装时尚的设计、创作和行销方法,强调能让消费者快速、廉价地获得。”[12]传统的时尚流程通常需要大约6个月的时间来设计、制造和销售,而快时尚能在几周内完成,以满足消费者对快速变化的需求。[13]
美国人自20世纪60年代以来所购买的新服装数量已增加两倍。全球化推动快时尚产业的快速发展。 全球服饰零售额于2019年达到1.9兆美元,再创新高,预计到2030年将会达到3兆美元。全球人每年购置的服装超过800亿件。[14]
废弃物的产生与处理
快时尚引发的一大担忧是它所产生的浪费。根据美国国家环境保护局(EPA)统计,[15]全球在2013年中就产生1,510万吨服装废料。[16]在美国,64.5%的此类废料被送进垃圾掩埋场,有19.3%被焚烧以取得能源,只有16.2%被回收。[17]当服装最终被运进垃圾掩埋场时,衣服上的化学物质(例如染料)可能会渗入地下而造成环境破坏。当未售出的衣服被燃烧时,[18]会释放二氧化碳进入大气。[19]根据世界银行的报告,时尚产业的年度碳排放量占全球的10%。[20]法国于2019年宣布正在努力阻止公司将未售出时尚商品以焚烧作处理。[21][22]时装的生产数量之高、速度之快,以至于超过40%的时装商品须以降价方式促销。 [23]
服装的包装也最终会成为这个产业的废弃物。随著网上购物(无论是服装还是其他物品)变得普遍,仅在美国就产生约7,500万吨废弃物。许多包装材料均为不可回收。[24]
慢时尚
慢时尚是一项针对快时尚的反对运动,专注于采用环保材料的永续式服装制造与销售。鼓励购买当地来源的服装,而非大品牌,这些当地制造的服装通常品质会更好,比工厂大量制造的更为耐用,同时可减少废弃衣服所造成的污染。[25]慢时尚运动也针对快时尚的道德问题提出挑战,后者通常会涉入低收入国家的工人,及低工资与超时工作的问题。[26]
合成纤维和天然纤维
聚酯纤维
聚酯纤维是2017年时尚界最爱使用的纤维之一,零售店中约60%的服装中都含有此种纤维,总重量达到约2,130万吨。[27]从2000年到2015年期间,含有聚酯纤维的服装消费量增加157%。[27]聚酯纤维是由煤、石油、空气和水的化学反应制成,[28]前两种是化石燃料,生产过程会产生多种空气污染物,如二氧化碳、悬浮微粒、氮氧化物、一氧化碳、硫化氢和二氧化硫。[29]除生产聚酯纤维过程中会造成污染之外,成品在生命周期结束时也会成为废弃物。聚酯不可生物降解,[30]表示其永远不会被细菌转化为不会破坏环境的状态。洗涤聚酯纤维制成的服装会导致超细纤维塑胶脱落,进入水系统,包括海洋。[31][32]
棉花纤维
棉花是世界上除粮食之外最常见的农作物。[33]全球所产的纺织品中有一半是由此种纤维制成。[33]棉花是一种耗水量较大的作物,生长一吨需用到3,644立方米的水,即每磅棉花需要用到347加仑的水。[34]种植棉花每年需用的杀虫剂占全球用量的25%,需用的农药占全球用量的10-16%。[35][34]EPA认为美国棉花种植使用的主要农药中有一半可能具有致癌性。[34]棉花生产会降低土壤品质,导致地力枯竭,必须另行开辟新田地来种植。[33]而田地扩张后会导致当地栖息地遭到破坏,相关污染也会影响当地的生物多样性。[33]
动物纤维和纺织品
于2005年,生产羊毛和皮革等动物纤维所产生的温室气体排放量占全球的14.5%。[36]牛的消化系统是种前胃发酵的过程,会产生甲烷(一种强效温室气体)。饲养的反刍动物除会释放甲烷之外,饲养作业也会产生二氧化碳与一氧化二氮的排放。饲养动物所产生的排放中,44%来自透过肠道发酵的反刍动物,41%来自饲养牲畜所种植的饲料作物,10%来自其粪便,5%来自所使用的能源。[37]
纤维 | 百万焦耳能源/每公斤纺织品 | 水(公升)/每公斤纺织品 |
---|---|---|
尼龙 | 250[38] | --- |
压克力 | 175[38] | --- |
聚酯 | 125[38] | 50,690-71,409[39] |
聚丙烯(PP) | 115[38] | --- |
嫘萦 | 100[38] | 3,000[39] |
羊毛 | 63[38] | 500[40] |
棉花 | 55[38] | 10,000-20,000[41] |
此处所提的能源消耗以生产一公斤纺织品所需的百万焦耳(简称MJ)为单位。用水量以生产一公斤纺织品所需的水量(公升)来衡量。
对海洋的影响
不当处置衣物会危害环境,特别是透过污水的方式。在掩埋场的废弃衣物因分解而产生的化学物质会进入空气和渗入地下,同时影响地下水和地表水。纺织品除造成塑胶污染外,也在海洋污染方面造成重大影响。纺织品与塑胶不同,在其供应链中的不同流程中均会产生污染,对海洋生物造成影响。[42]杀虫剂和服装制造时使用的化学物质等污染物会黏附在水域生态系中积聚的颗粒上,有可能进入人类食物链中。[43]
超细纤维污染
塑胶和合成纺织品都是由称为聚合物的化学结构组成。 《韦伯字典》将聚合物定义为”透过主要由重复结构单元的聚合,所形成的化合物或化合物的混合”。常见的塑胶聚合物是聚对苯二甲酸乙二酯(PET)、聚乙烯 (PE) 或聚丙烯 (PP),而废弃纺织品中最丰富的聚合物是聚酯和尼龙。[44]
纺织品在其生命周期的每个阶段(从生产、使用到报废处置)都有超细纤维脱落。[45]这些纤维最终进入土壤、空气、湖泊和海洋。[45]从纺织品产业一开始即有超细纤维污染存在,但直到最近才受到大众的关注。[45]加拿大的非营利组织海洋智慧保护协会(Ocean Wise Conservation Association)曾发表一篇讨论纺织品废弃物的研究报告。称人类每洗涤一公斤含聚酯纺织品,平均会排出约20至800毫克的超细聚酯废弃物。每洗涤一公斤含尼龙纺织品则大约有11至63毫克超细尼龙废弃物流入水体。[46]洗涤合成纺织品会将微塑胶和超细纤维释放进入海洋。[47]在使用洗衣机洗涤衣物时,这些物质在翻滚过程中脱落。[47]每次洗涤家用衣物可脱落多达70万根超细纤维。[45]
海洋智慧保护协会还发布另一项研究报告,叙述美国和加拿大的家庭平均每年生产约135克超细纤维,相当于每年向累积排放2.2万吨超微纤维进入污水系统,经过各个污水处理厂处理,其中约有878吨未经捕获,而会进入海洋。至于未经污水处理厂处理过的污水带进多少超微纤维海洋则不得而知。[48]
纺织品是环境中超细纤维的主要来源。[45]在例如海岸的海洋生态系统中发现的微塑胶中有35%是合成超细纤维和奈米纤维。[45]这种超细纤维会被海洋生态系统中的鱼类或其他物种所摄取,进入肠道,并造成伤害。[49]在供人类食用的鱼类和贝类的消化道中均广泛发现有超细纤维。[45]超细污染物在食物链中会逐步累积,发生生物放大作用。[50]摄入超微纤维的猎物受到捕食,捕食者也会受到伤害。研究发现海中贝类每年摄取的微塑胶有11,000片,于巴西一湖泊中捕获的鱼中,有83%的体内均发现有超细纤维。[49]在一项研究中,螃蟹摄取的食物中含有塑胶超微纤维时,其食物消耗率会下降,会导致其生长所需的能量降低。[51][52]
解决时尚产业对环境影响的技术包括采用海藻吸附剂,这种海藻表面有丰富的化学特性(杂原子功能)),将水中的染料吸附清理干净。[53]许多技术或潜在的解决方案在施行时均有困难,例如在海洋沉积物中检测微塑胶技术的准确性,在不同的土壤样本或来源中尚未得到充分的测试。
优氧化
通常种植棉花的过程中会使用大量的化学肥料,经过地表迳流将其携带进入湖泊和河流中,这种营养过度丰富(主要为硝酸盐和磷酸盐)的情况会造成优氧化,而导致水体内植物大量生长(藻华),藻华会消耗水中的氧气含量,导致生态系统发生变化,或是水生生物因此死亡,或是由于变得不适合生存而必须种群迁移。藻华也会让水体中的水不适合人类使用,与供娱乐休闲用途。[54]
用水
生产布料和服装需要耗用大量的水。全球时尚产业每年使用930亿立方公尺的水(即20兆加仑),[55][56]达到全球淡水抽取总量的4%。[57]如果按照目前的趋势发展,到2030年的水耗用量将增加一倍。[58]根据联合国环境署的数据,时尚产业产生的废水占全球废水总量的20%。[59]制造一条Levi's牛仔裤平均要耗用约3,781公升水。[60]平均而言,生产一公斤纺织品需要耗用200公升水。[34]
产业于永续发展的作为
消费者使用的阶段在服装和其他纺织品生命周期中是个会产生重要影响的领域,但通常遭到忽略。[61]目前对使用节能洗衣机和烘干机以降低消费者影响的研究做的不多。[61]根据研究,若将衣物使用的时间延长9个月可减少22%的总体浪费和33%的用水量。[62]就生产商而言,其生产消费者更有可能购买的流行颜色和设计的服装,是同时能符合经济,并对环境负责的做法。[61]设计更有可能被购买的服装可减少生产方面的浪费。时尚零售商H&M于2018年的未售出商品价值到43亿美元。[62]如巴塔哥尼亚等其他零售商已努力透过使用环保材料(例如有机种植的棉花和由回收塑胶瓶制成的聚酯纤维)来生产更具永续性的服装。[63][64]
为延长服装的生命周期并减缓生产和过度消费的速度,人们开始考虑诸如”服装库(clothing libraries)”之类的商业模式。这些企业从当地商店和公司收集衣服,让顾客按月付费的方式租用。诸如此类的创业公司已在荷兰和瑞典进行测试,也有人担心这类服装库的概念对减少快时尚的影响几乎无作用。[65]
参见
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延伸阅读
- Ross, Robert J. S. Slaves to Fashion: Poverty and Abuse in the New Sweatshops. University of Michigan Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-472-10941-8. JSTOR 10.3998/mpub.15439. S2CID 155579591. doi:10.3998/mpub.15439. Project MUSE book 7116.
- Hassanzadeh, Sanaz; Hasani, Hossein. A Review on Milkweed Fiber Properties as a High-Potential Raw Material in Textile Applications. Journal of Industrial Textiles. 2017, 46 (6): 1412–1436. S2CID 137942362. doi:10.1177/1528083715620398.
- Debnath, Sanjoy. Great Potential of Stinging Nettle for Sustainable Textile and Fashion. Handbook of Sustainable Luxury Textiles and Fashion. Environmental Footprints and Eco-design of Products and Processes. 2015: 43–57. ISBN 978-981-287-632-4. doi:10.1007/978-981-287-633-1_3.