535年至536年全球极端天气事件
535年至536年全球极端天气事件是近2000年来北半球最严重且持续时间最长的气候变冷事件[1]。这场火山冬天由至少三次不确定来源的同时火山爆发引起,各大陆都提出了几个可能的地点。大多数有关火山冬季的当代记录来自东罗马帝国首都君士坦丁堡的作者,尽管较凉爽的温度影响范围超出了欧洲。但现代学者确定,在公元536年初(或可能是535年末),有一次火山爆发将大量的硫酸盐气溶胶喷射到大气中,减少了到达地球表面的太阳辐射,使大气冷却了数年。536年3月,君士坦丁堡开始出现阴暗的天空和较低的温度。
536年的夏季温度在欧洲下降了高达2.5°C(4.5°F)的正常值。536年火山冬季的持续影响在539-540年进一步增强,当时另一次火山爆发导致夏季温度在欧洲下降了高达2.7°C(4.9°F)的正常值。[2]还有证据表明,在547年发生了另一次火山爆发,进一步延长凉爽的时期。这些火山爆发导致作物歉收,并伴随着查士丁尼大瘟疫、饥荒和数百万人的死亡,开启了晚古代小冰河时期,持续了从536年到560年。[3]
研究中世纪的学者麦可·麦考米克(Michael McCormick)写道,公元536年是“对在世者来说最难生存的一年(the worst year to be alive)[…] 即使不是最糟糕的一年,也是最糟糕的时期之一的开始”。[4]
文献证据
罗马历史学者普罗科匹厄斯曾在公元536年的报告中记录了汪达尔战争,并提及到“在这一年发生了一个非常可怕的预兆。因为太阳发出了光而无光芒……它看起来非常像日蚀中的太阳,因为它所发出的光束并不清晰”。[5][6]
538年,罗马政治家卡西奥多罗斯在信函25中向他的一位下属描述了以下情况: [7]
- 太阳的光线微弱,呈现出“蓝色”。
- 中午时分,地面上看不到人的阴影。太阳的热度微弱。即使是满月也“缺乏光彩”。
- “没有暴风的冬天,没有温和的春天,没有热情的夏天”。
- 持续的霜冻和不合时宜的干旱。
- 季节“似乎都混在一起了”。
- 天空被描述为“与异物混合在一起”,就像多云的天气一样,但是持续时间较长。它“像一块皮肤般被拉伸在天空中”,阻止了太阳和月亮的“真实颜色”被看见,以及太阳的温暖。
- 收割期间的霜冻,使得苹果变硬且葡萄变酸。
- 需要使用储存的食物来度过这种情况。
随后的信件(26号和27号)讨论了纾解普遍饥荒的计划。
叙利亚东正教会的教父叙利亚的米海尔报告称,在536–537年期间,太阳微弱地照耀了一年半。[8]
爱尔兰盖尔诺人的爱尔兰编年史记录了以下情况:[9][10][11]
10世纪中叶的《威尔士年代记》记录了537年的事件:
其他独立的当代资料也报导了进一步的现象:
此外对于这一时期还有其他证据来源。[16][17][18][19]
科学证据
贝尔法斯特女王大学的树轮年代学专家迈克·贝利根据对树木的年轮分析显示,536年的爱尔兰橡树生长异常缓慢,542年再次急剧下降,之后部分恢复。[20]来自格陵兰和南极洲的冰芯显示,在534年左右有大量的硫酸盐沉积,这是广泛存在的酸性尘埃帷幕的证据。[21]
可能的解释
最初有理论认为,公元536年的气候变化是由火山爆发(被称为“火山冬天”现象)或撞击事件(陨石或彗星)引起的。[22][23][24] 在2015年,对极地冰芯的年代学的修订将硫酸盐沉积和一层隐蔽火山碎屑层的日期确定为公元536年(之前的日期是修订前的公元529年)。[25]这是一个强有力的证据,表明一次大规模的火山爆发导致观察到的昏暗和降温,从而无需外太空天体的解释[21][25],但这个时期附近的一次撞击事件也不能排除。[26]
火山爆发的来源仍有待发现,但几个提出的火山已被否定:
- R·B·斯托瑟斯(R. B. Stothers)提出巴布亚新几内亚新不列颠岛的拉包尔火山[27]。但根据挪威气候研究中心的摆动匹配放射性碳定年,现在认为该爆发发生在公元667年至699年之间。[28]
- 大卫·基斯将爪哇国王书中公元416年的灾难移至公元535年[15],并提出了喀拉喀托火山的可能性。但在巽他海峡进行的钻探计划中,排除了在这个时期火山爆发发生的可能性。[29]
- 罗伯特·达尔(Robert Dull)和同事提出了伊洛潘戈湖火山口的大型VEI-7,即蒂埃拉布兰卡·霍文火山爆发[30][31]。但冰芯中TBJ火山灰的识别将爆发日期缩小到公元429年至433年。[32]
- 克里斯托弗·洛夫勒克(Christopher Loveluck)及其同事根据瑞士冰川中的碎片提出了冰岛火山.[4][33][34]。然而,确定为公元536年的隐蔽火山碎屑在地球化学上与冰岛火山碎屑有所不同[35],而瑞士冰川中的碎片具有较大的年代不确定性。[33]
对公元536年的隐蔽火山碎屑的地球化学分析区分了北美洲至少三次同步的喷发事件。[25]进一步的分析将其中一次喷发与加利福尼亚东北部识别的广泛的莫诺-因约火山口火山灰相关联[25][36]。另外两次喷发最有可能来自阿拉斯加州西南端阿留申群岛和北方喀斯喀特山火山省。[25][37]
后果
部分学者推测,公元536年的事件和随之而来的饥荒解释了民族大迁徙末期斯堪的纳维亚精英族群大量窖藏黄金的现象。这些黄金可能是用来祭祀神明以恢复阳光的祭品。[38][39]一些神话事件,如“芬布尔之冬”和“诸神黄昏”,被认为是基于对这一事件的文化记忆。[40]
大卫·基斯(David Keys)的一本书推测气候变化促成了各种发展,例如查士丁尼大瘟疫的出现(541–549年)、阿瓦尔人的衰落、蒙古部落向西迁徙、萨珊王朝的结束、笈多王朝的崩溃、伊斯兰教的兴起、突厥部落的扩张以及特奥蒂瓦坎的崩溃。[15]2000年,3BM电视制作(为WNET和Channel Four)借鉴了基斯的书。这部纪录片以《灾难!世界是如何改变的》为名,在美国作为PBS的《死者的秘密》系列的一部分播出。[41]
然而,基斯和沃勒兹的观点缺乏主流接受。在评论基斯的书时,英国考古学家肯·达克指出,“书中呈现的许多明显证据都存在争议,基于不良来源或者纯粹的错误。……尽管如此,全球范围和对公元6世纪作为一个变革时期的强调是值得注意的,该书包含了一些对许多人来说是新的,模糊的信息。然而,它未能证明其核心命题,并未对所讨论的许多变化提供令人信服的解释。”[42]
语言学家安德鲁·布里兹在最近的一本书(2020年)中辩称,包括剑栏之战、亚瑟王在内的一些历史事件,是在537年由于与前一年气候变化相关的饥荒而发生的。[43]
历史学家罗伯特·布鲁顿(Robert Bruton)认为,这一灾难对罗马帝国的衰落起了一定作用。[44]
另见
参考来源
- 文章
- ^ Abbott, D. H.; Biscaye, P.; Cole-Dai, J.; Breger, D. Magnetite and Silicate Spherules from the GISP2 Core at the 536 A.D. Horizon. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2008 41: 41B–1454. December 2008. Bibcode:2008AGUFMPP41B1454A. Abstract #PP41B-1454.
- ^ Harper, Kyle. The Fate of Rome. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 2017: 253. ISBN 9780691166834.
- ^ Peregrine, Peter. Climate and social change at the start of the Late Antique Little Ice Age. The Holocene. 2020, 30 (11): 1643–1648 [18 November 2021]. Bibcode:2020Holoc..30.1643P. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 222179333. doi:10.1177/0959683620941079 . (原始内容存档于2021-11-22).
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Gibbons, Ann. Why 536 was 'the worst year to be alive'. Science. 15 November 2018. ISSN 0036-8075. S2CID 189287084. doi:10.1126/science.aaw0632.
- ^ Procopius. Procopius. 2: History of the [Vandalic] Wars, Books III and IV. 由Dewing, Henry Bronson翻译. London, England: William Heinemann. 1916: 329 [2024-04-18]. ISBN 978-0-674-99054-8. (原始内容存档于2023-10-11) (en-uk).
- ^ Ochoa, George; Hoffman, Jennifer; Tin, Tina. Climate: the force that shapes our world and the future of life on earth. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale. 2005. ISBN 978-1-59486-288-5 (美国英语),
- ^ Cassiodorus. The Letters of Cassiodorus. 由Hodgkin, Thomas翻译. London, England: Henry Frowde. 1886: 518–520 [2024-04-18]. (原始内容存档于2023-10-11) (en-uk). See: "25. Senator, Praetorian Praefect, to his deputy Ambrosius, an Illustris."
- ^ Michel le Syrien. Chronique de Michel le Syrien, Patriarche Jacobite d'Antoche [Chronicle of Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Syria] 2. 由Chabot, J. -B.翻译. Paris, France: Leroux. 1901: 220–221 [2024-04-18]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-15) (法语).
- ^ Gaelic Irish Annals (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) translations
- ^ List of Published Texts at CELT. celt.ucc.ie. [2024-04-18]. (原始内容存档于2001-07-02).
- ^ Annals of the Four Masters. celt.ucc.ie. [2024-04-18]. (原始内容存档于2023-10-04).
- ^ Camlan | Robbins Library Digital Projects. [31 July 2018]. (原始内容存档于2018-07-31) (英语).
- ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Ochoa, George; Hoffman, Jennifer; Tin, Tina. Climate: the force that shapes our world and the future of life on earth. Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale. 2005: 71. ISBN 978-1-59486-288-5 (美国英语).
- ^ Rosen, William. Justinian's flea: Plague, Empire and the Birth of Europe. London, England: Jonathan Cape. 2007. ISBN 978-0-224-07369-1 (en-uk).
- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Keys, David Patrick. Catastrophe: an investigation into the origins of the modern world. New York: Ballantine Pub. 2000. ISBN 978-0-345-40876-1.
- ^ Stothers, R. B.; Rampino, M. R. Volcanic eruptions in the Mediterranean before AD 630 from written and archaeological sources. Journal of Geophysical Research. 1983, 88 (B8): 6357–6471. Bibcode:1983JGR....88.6357S. ISSN 0148-0227. doi:10.1029/JB088iB08p06357.
- ^ Stothers, R. B. Mystery cloud of AD 536. Nature. 16 January 1984, 307 (5949): 344–345. Bibcode:1984Natur.307..344S. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4233649. doi:10.1038/307344a0.
- ^ Rampino, M. R.; Self, S.; Stothers, R. B. Volcanic winters. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 1988, 16: 73–99. Bibcode:1988AREPS..16...73R. ISSN 0084-6597. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.000445.
- ^ Arjava, Antti. The mystery cloud of 536 CE in the Mediterranean sources. Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 2005, 59: 73–94. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 4128751. doi:10.2307/4128751.
- ^ Baillie, M. G. L. (1994). "Dendrochronology Raises Questions About the Nature of the AD 536 Dust-Veil Event." The Holocene, fig. 3, p. 215.
- ^ 21.0 21.1 Larsen, L. B.; Vinther, B. M.; Briffa, K. R.; Melvin, T. M.; Clausen, H. B.; Jones, P. D.; Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L.; Hammer, C. U.; et al. New ice core evidence for a volcanic cause of the A.D. 536 dust veil. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2008, 35 (4): L04708 [7 April 2008]. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..35.4708L. ISSN 0094-8276. S2CID 54703352. doi:10.1029/2007GL032450. (原始内容存档于6 June 2011).
- ^ Baillie, Michael G. L. Exodus to Arthur: Catastrophic Encounters with Comets. London, England: B.T. Batsford. 1999. ISBN 978-0-7134-8352-9 (en-uk).
- ^ Rigby, Emma; Symonds, Melissa; Ward-Thompson, Derek. A comet impact in AD 536?. Astronomy and Geophysics. February 2004, 45 (1): 1.23–1.26. Bibcode:2004A&G....45a..23R. ISSN 1366-8781. S2CID 121589992. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.45123.x .
- ^ MacIntyre, Ferren. Simultaneous Settlement of Indo-Pacific Extrema?. Rapa Nui Journal. 2002, 16 (2): 96–104.
- ^ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 Sigl, M.; Winstrup, M.; McConnell, J. R.; Welten, K. C.; Plunkett, G.; Ludlow, F.; Büntgen, U.; Caffee, M.; Chellman, N. Timing and climate forcing of volcanic eruptions for the past 2,500 years. Nature. 2015, 523 (7562): 543–549 [2024-04-18]. Bibcode:2015Natur.523..543S. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 26153860. S2CID 4462058. doi:10.1038/nature14565. (原始内容存档于2019-07-11).
- ^ Abbott, Dallas H.; Breger, Dee; Biscaye, Pierre E.; Barron, John A.; Juhl, Robert A.; McCafferty, Patrick. What caused terrestrial dust loading and climate downturns between A.D. 533 and 540?. Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects. 2014-09-01 [2024-04-18]. ISBN 9780813725055. S2CID 129953699. doi:10.1130/2014.2505(23). (原始内容存档于2023-03-13) (英语).
- ^ Stothers, R. B. Mystery cloud of AD 536. Nature. 26 January 1984, 307 (5949): 344–345. Bibcode:1984Natur.307..344S. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4233649. doi:10.1038/307344a0.
- ^ McKee, Chris O.; Baillie, Michael G.; Reimer, Paula J. A revised age of ad 667–699 for the latest major eruption at Rabaul. Bulletin of Volcanology. 2015-07-04, 77 (7): 65. Bibcode:2015BVol...77...65M. ISSN 1432-0819. S2CID 132032440. doi:10.1007/s00445-015-0954-7 (英语).
- ^ Southon, John; Mohtadi, Mahyar; Pol-Holz, Ricardo De. Planktonic Foram Dates from the Indonesian Arc: Marine 14C Reservoir Ages and a Mythical AD 535 Eruption of Krakatau. Radiocarbon. 2013-02-09, 55 (3): 1164–1172 [2024-04-18]. Bibcode:2013Radcb..55.1164S. ISSN 0033-8222. S2CID 54647517. doi:10.1017/S0033822200048074. (原始内容存档于2023-09-22) (英语).
- ^ Dull, R.; Southon, J. R.; Kutterolf, S.; Freundt, A.; Wahl, D.; Sheets, P. Did the TBJ Ilopango eruption cause the AD 536 event?. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts. 13–17 December 2010, 13: V13C–2370. Bibcode:2010AGUFM.V13C2370D.
- ^ Dull, Robert A.; Southon, John R.; Kutterolf, Steffen; Anchukaitis, Kevin J.; Freundt, Armin; Wahl, David B.; Sheets, Payson; Amaroli, Paul; Hernandez, Walter; Wiemann, Michael C.; Oppenheimer, Clive. Radiocarbon and geologic evidence reveal Ilopango volcano as a source of the colossal 'mystery' eruption of 539/40 CE (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. October 2019, 222: 105855 [2024-04-18]. Bibcode:2019QSRv..22205855D. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 202190161. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.037. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-11-24).
- ^ Smith, Victoria C.; Costa, Antonio; Aguirre-Díaz, Gerardo; Pedrazzi, Dario; Scifo, Andrea; Plunkett, Gill; Poret, Mattieu; Tournigand, Pierre-Yves; Miles, Dan; Dee, Michael W.; McConnell, Joseph R.; Sunyé-Puchol, Ivan; Harris, Pablo Dávila; Sigl, Michael; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Chellman, Nathan; Gutiérrez, Eduardo. The magnitude and impact of the 431 CE Tierra Blanca Joven eruption of Ilopango, El Salvador. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 20 October 2020, 117 (42): 26061–26068. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11726061S. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 7584997 . PMID 32989145. doi:10.1073/pnas.2003008117 .
- ^ 33.0 33.1 Loveluck, Christopher P.; McCormick, Michael; Spaulding, Nicole E.; Clifford, Heather; Handley, Michael J.; Hartman, Laura; Hoffmann, Helene; Korotkikh, Elena V.; Kurbatov, Andrei V.; More, Alexander F.; Sneed, Sharon B.; Mayewski, Paul A. Alpine ice-core evidence for the transformation of the European monetary system, AD 640–670. Antiquity. 2018-11-14, 92 (366): 1571–1585. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 165543389. doi:10.15184/aqy.2018.110 (英语).
- ^ 存档副本. [2024-04-18]. (原始内容存档于2024-05-20).
- ^ Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; McConnell, Joseph R.; Chellman, Nathan; Steffensen, J.P.; Büntgen, Ulf. Smoking guns and volcanic ash: the importance of sparse tephras in Greenland ice cores. Polar Research. 2020-06-08, 39 [2024-04-18]. ISSN 0800-0395. S2CID 219672090. doi:10.33265/polar.v39.3511 . (原始内容存档于2024-03-24).
- ^ Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; McConnell, Joseph R.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Chellman, Nathan J. The significance of volcanic ash in Greenland ice cores during the Common Era. Quaternary Science Reviews. 2023-02-01, 301: 107936. Bibcode:2023QSRv..30107936P. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 181849906. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2022.107936 (英语).
- ^ Plunkett, Gill; Sigl, Michael; Schwaiger, Hans F.; Tomlinson, Emma L.; Toohey, Matthew; McConnell, Joseph R.; Pilcher, Jonathan R.; Hasegawa, Takeshi; Siebe, Claus. No evidence for tephra in Greenland from the historic eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE: implications for geochronology and paleoclimatology. Climate of the Past. 2022-01-18, 18 (1): 45–65 [2024-04-18]. Bibcode:2022CliPa..18...45P. ISSN 1814-9324. doi:10.5194/cp-18-45-2022 . hdl:2262/101944 . (原始内容存档于2024-05-02) (English).
- ^ Axboe, Morten. Året 536. Skalk. 2001, (4): 28–32.
- ^ Axboe, Morten. The year 536 and the Scandinavian gold hoards (PDF). Medieval Archaeology. 1999, 43: 186–188 [12 January 2009]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于10 August 2011).
- ^ Ström, Folke: Nordisk Hedendom, Studentlitteratur, Lund 2005, ISBN 91-44-00551-2 (first published 1961) among others, refer to the climate change theory.
- ^ Gunn, Joel D. The Years Without Summer: Tracing A.D. 536 and its Aftermath. British Archaeological Reports (BAR) International. Oxford, England: Archaeopress. 2000. ISBN 978-1-84171-074-7.
- ^ Dark, Ken. Jumbling old events with modern myths. British Archaeology. November 1999, (49) [14 July 2020]. ISSN 1357-4442. (原始内容存档于25 February 2006).
- ^ Breeze, Andrew. British Battles 493–937: Mount Badon to Brunanburh. London, England: Anthem Press. 2020: 13–24. ISBN 9781785272233. JSTOR j.ctvv4187r. S2CID 243164764. doi:10.2307/j.ctvv4187r (en-uk).
- ^ Burton, Robert. The Role of Climate Change in the Decline of the Roman Empire. Capstone Paper. 7 April 2019 [2023-12-29].
书籍
- Arjava, Antti. The Mystery Cloud of 536 CE in the Mediterranean Sources. Dumbarton Oaks Papers 59. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. 2006: 73–94 (美国英语).
- Axboe, Morten. Amulet Pendants and a Darkened Sun. Bente Magnus (编). Roman Gold and the Development of the Early Germanic Kingdoms: Aspects of Technical, Socio-political, Socio-economic, Artistic and Intellectual Development, A.D. 1–500. Almquiest & Wiksell Intl. 2001: 51. ISBN 978-91-7402-310-7.
- Baillie, Michael G. L. Dendrochronology Raises Questions About the Nature of the AD 536 Dust-Veil Event. The Holocene. 1994, 4 (2): 212–217. Bibcode:1994Holoc...4..212B. S2CID 140595125. doi:10.1177/095968369400400211.
- Baillie, Michael. A Slice Through Time: Dendrochronology and Precision Dating. London, England: Batsford. 1995: 93 [2024-04-18]. ISBN 978-0-7134-7654-5. (原始内容存档于2023-09-22) (en-uk).
- Büntgen, Ulf; Myglan, Vladimir S.; Ljungqvist, Fredrik Charpentier; McCormick, Michael; Di Cosmo, Nicola; Sigl, Michael; Jungclaus, Johann; Wagner, Sebastian; Krusic, Paul J.; Esper, Jan; Kaplan, Jed O.; de Vaan, Michiel A. C.; Luterbacher, Jürg; Wacker, Lukas; Tegel, Willy; Kirdyanov, Alexander V. Cooling and societal change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 AD. Nature Geoscience. March 2016, 9 (3): 231–236 [2024-04-18]. Bibcode:2016NatGe...9..231B. doi:10.1038/ngeo2652. (原始内容存档于2020-07-26).
- Farhat-Holzman, Laina. Climate Change, Volcanoes, and Plagues – the New Tools of History. Good Times. GlobalThink.Net Research Papers. 23 January 2003. (原始内容存档于27 September 2007).
- Gunn, Joel. The Years Without Summer: Tracing A.D. 536 and its Aftermath. British Archaeological Reports (BAR) International. Oxford, England: Archaeopress. 2000. ISBN 978-1-84171-074-7.
- Keys, David Patrick. Catastrophe: An Investigation into the Origins of the Modern World. New York: Ballantine Pub. 2000. ISBN 978-0-345-40876-1.
- Levy, David (ed.), The Scientific American Book of the Cosmos, ISBN 0-312-25453-9, 2000, (Google Print, p. 186)[失效链接]
- Rosen, William. Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire and the Birth of Europe. London, England: Jonathan Cape. 2007. ISBN 978-0-224-07369-1 (en-uk).
- Salzer, Matthew W.; Hughes, Malcolm K. Bristlecone pine tree rings and volcanic eruptions over the last 5000 yr. Quaternary Research. January 2007, 67 (1): 57–68. Bibcode:2007QuRes..67...57S. S2CID 14654597. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2006.07.004.
- Sigl, M.; Winstrup, M.; McConnell, J. R.; Welten, K. C.; Plunkett, G.; Ludlow, F.; Büntgen, U.; Caffee, M.; Chellman, N.; Dahl-Jensen, D.; Fischer, H.; Kipfstuhl, S.; Kostick, C.; Maselli, O. J.; Mekhaldi, F.; Mulvaney, R.; Muscheler, R.; Pasteris, D. R.; Pilcher, J. R.; Salzer, M.; Schüpbach, S.; Steffensen, J. P.; Vinther, B. M.; Woodruff, T. E. Timing and climate forcing of volcanic eruptions for the past 2,500 years (PDF). Nature. July 2015, 523 (7562): 543–549 [2024-04-18]. Bibcode:2015Natur.523..543S. PMID 26153860. S2CID 4462058. doi:10.1038/nature14565. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2024-02-19).
- Winchester, Simon. Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded, August 27, 1883. New York: Harper-Collins. 2003. ISBN 978-0-06-621285-2.