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维基百科，自由的百科全书

项目管理是领导一个团队在规定时间内实现目标和达到成功标准的过程,其主要挑战在于在给定的约束条件下实现所有项目目标[1]，在社会科学领域是管理学的一个分支学科。这些信息通常包含于在开发过程初期建立的项目文档中。主要的约束条件是范围、时间、预算[2]其次是优化资源配置的必要投入，并将其应用于实现既定目标。

项目管理的目的是产生一个符合客户目标的完整项目，在许多情景下也可以通过塑造或改变客户的想法，更切实地实现客户的目标。一旦明确了客户的目标，就应该让目标指导参与项目的其他人员——例如项目经理、设计师、承包商和分包商等——做出的所有决策。定义不清或规定过严的项目管理目标不利于良好决策。

项目具有临时性，目的在于生产一种独特的产品、服务或结果，具有明确的开始和结束，通常还受到时间、资金和人员限制。[3][4]项目的临时性与商业中的“一切照旧”（即business as usual）[5] 形成对比，后者是为生产产品或服务而进行的重复的、永久或半永久的实践活动。

历史

在20世纪之前，土木工程等一般都是由负责项目的建筑师、工程师等自行管理，例如维特鲁威（公元前一世纪）、克里斯多佛·雷恩（1632-1723）、托马斯·特尔福德（1757-1834）和伊桑巴德·金德姆·布鲁内尔（1806-1859）。[6]从20世纪50年代起，人们开始系统地将项目管理的工具和技术应用于复杂的工程项目。[7]

亨利·甘特（1861–1919），规划和控制技术之父

作为一门学科，项目管理是从土木工程、建筑和国防等几个应用领域发展而来。[8]项目管理的两位奠基者是因甘特图而闻名的“计划和控制技术之父”亨利·甘特，[9]与创立了按职能划分的古典管理理论的亨利·法约尔，[10]而二位都继承了泰勒的科学管理理论。

20世纪50年代标志着现代项目管理的开始，主要特征是核心工程领域聚集在一起作为一个整体工作。项目管理成为公认的从管理学科中产生的一门具有工程模式的独特学科。[11]在美国，20世纪50年代以前，项目管理是临时的，主要使用甘特图和非正规的技术工具，例如关键路径法和计划评审技术两种数学项目调度模型。关键路径法（CPM）是杜邦公司和雷明顿兰德公司联合开发的，用于管理工厂维护项目。“计划评审技术”（PERT），是由美国海军与洛克希德公司和博思艾伦咨询公司作为研发“北极星”号潜艇导弹系统的一部分联合开发的。[12]

PERT和CPM在方法上非常相似，但仍存在一些差异。CPM用于假设确定活动时间的项目；每项活动进行的时间是已知的。另一方面，PERT允许随机的活动时间；每个活动进行的时间是不确定的或变化的。由于这一核心区别，CPM和PERT被用于不同的场合。这些数学技术迅速普及到很多民营企业。

一个7个月的项目，5个里程碑的PERT网络图

与此同时，随着项目调度模型的完善，项目成本估算、成本管理和工程经济的技术也在不断发展。1956年，美国造价工程师协会主要由项目管理和相关的规划调度、成本估算控制等的从业人员组成。这一协会继续其开创性的工作，并在2006年发布了第一个投资组合、计划和项目管理的综合流程（即总成本管理框架）。

1969年，国际项目管理学会在美国成立。[13]这一学会于1996年出版了以威廉·邓肯主编的《项目管理知识体系指南》的原始版本，该指南描述了 "大多数项目、大多数时间 "所共有的项目管理实践。

类型

项目管理方法适用于一切项目。它通常根据项目规模，性质，行业或部门针对特定类型的项目量身定制成专门的项目管理形式，例如建筑项目管理专务于道路桥梁等的建设[14]，IT项目管理关注技术资产和服务以及软件生命周期，生物技术项目管理关注复杂的生物技术研发。[15]本地化项目管理把许多项目管理的方法应用在文字翻译工作中，别具一格。公共项目管理涵盖了政府的所有公共工程，可以由政府机构执行或外包给承包商。项目管理还可以基于硬或软（即物理或非物理）进行分类。

各种项目管理的共通点在于以下三个重要目标：时间，质量和预算。成功的项目将按计划，在预算范围内并根据先前商定的质量标准完成，即达到铁三角或三重约束条件，这是评判项目成败的重要依据。[16]

项目经理会总结制作在该行业进行项目管理的可重复模板，以此明晰透彻，减少重复性工作，具有提高质量，降低成本和缩短时间的效果。

方法

2017年的一项研究表明，项目成功都取决于影响项目的四个关键方面，即4P：[17]

  • 计划：计划和预测活动；
  • 流程： 项目所有活动的全过程；
  • 人员：人员安排及其协作交流；
  • 权力： 权限范围，决策者，组织结构，策略实施等。

有多种方法可以组织和完成项目活动，包括分阶段，精益，迭代和增量等。项目计划也有一些扩展，例如基于产品的结果或基于过程的活动。

无论方法论如何，都必须仔细考虑整个项目的目标，时间表和成本，以及所有参与者和利益相关者的角色和责任。[18]

效益实现管理

主条目：Benefits realisation management

Benefits realization management (BRM) enhances normal project management techniques through a focus on outcomes (benefits) of a project rather than products or outputs, and then measuring the degree to which that is happening to keep a project on track. This can help to reduce the risk of a completed project being a failure by delivering agreed upon requirements (outputs) i.e. project success but failing to deliver the benefits (outcomes) of those requirements i.e. product success.

In addition, BRM practices aim to ensure the strategic alignment between project outcomes and business strategies. The effectiveness of these practices is supported by recent research evidencing BRM practices influencing project success from a strategic perspective across different countries and industries. These wider effects are called the strategic impact.[19]

An example of delivering a project to requirements might be agreeing to deliver a computer system that will process staff data and manage payroll, holiday and staff personnel records in shorter times with reduced errors. Under BRM, the agreement might be to achieve a specified reduction in staff hours and errors required to process and maintain staff data after the system installation when compared with without the system.

关键链项目管理

主条目：Critical chain project management

Critical chain project management (CCPM) is an application of the theory of constraints (TOC) to planning and managing projects, and is designed to deal with the uncertainties inherent in managing projects, while taking into consideration limited availability of resources (physical, human skills, as well as management & support capacity) needed to execute projects.

The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an organization (throughput). Applying the first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for all projects, as well as the resources, are identified. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priority over all other activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that the resources are ready when the critical chain tasks must start, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain.

挣值管理

主条目：Earned value management

Earned value management (EVM) extends project management with techniques to improve project monitoring. It illustrates project progress towards completion in terms of work and value (cost). Earned Schedule is an extension to the theory and practice of EVM.

迭代式项目管理

参见：迭代式开发

In critical studies of project management, it has been noted that phased approaches are not well suited for projects which are large-scale and multi-company,[20] with undefined, ambiguous, or fast-changing requirements,[21] or those with high degrees of risk, dependency, and fast-changing technologies.[22] The cone of uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel product.

These complexities are better handled with a more exploratory or iterative and incremental approach.[23] Several models of iterative and incremental project management have evolved, including agile project management, dynamic systems development method, extreme project management, and Innovation Engineering®.[24]

精益项目管理

主条目：Lean project management

Lean project management uses the principles from lean manufacturing to focus on delivering value with less waste and reduced time.

Phased approach

The phased (or staged) approach breaks down and manages the work through a series of distinct steps to be completed, and is often referred to as "traditional"[25] or "waterfall".[26] Although it can vary, it typically consists of five process areas, four phases plus control:

Typical development phases of an engineering project
  1. initiation.
  2. planning and design.
  3. construction.
  4. monitoring and controlling.
  5. completion or closing.

Many industries use variations of these project stages and it is not uncommon for the stages to be renamed to better suit the organization. For example, when working on a brick-and-mortar design and construction, projects will typically progress through stages like pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic design, design development, construction drawings (or contract documents), and construction administration.

While the phased approach works well for small, well-defined projects, it often results in challenge or failure on larger projects, or those that are more complex or have more ambiguities, issues and risk.[27]

基于流程的管理

主条目：Process-based management

The incorporation of process-based management has been driven by the use of maturity models such as the OPM3 and the CMMI (capability maturity model integration; see this example of a predecessor) and ISO/IEC 15504 (SPICE – software process improvement and capability estimation). Unlike SEI's CMM, the OPM3 maturity model describes how to make project management processes capable of performing successfully, consistently, and predictably to enact the strategies of an organization.

项目生产管理

主条目：Project production management

Project production management is the application of operations management to the delivery of capital projects. The Project production management framework is based on a project as a production system view, in which a project transforms inputs (raw materials, information, labor, plant & machinery) into outputs (goods and services).[28]

基于产品的计划

主条目：Product-based planning

Product-based planning is a structured approach to project management, based on identifying all of the products (project deliverables) that contribute to achieving the project objectives. As such, it defines a successful project as output-oriented rather than activity- or task-oriented.[29] The most common implementation of this approach is PRINCE2.[30]

Process groups

The project development stages[31]

Traditionally (depending on what project management methodology is being used), project management includes a number of elements: four to five project management process groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, the same basic project management processes or stages of development will be used. Major process groups generally include:[32]

  • Initiation
  • Planning
  • Production or execution
  • Monitoring and controlling
  • Closing

In project environments with a significant exploratory element (e.g., research and development), these stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go decisions) at which the project's continuation is debated and decided. An example is the Phase–gate model.

Initiating

Initiating process group processes[31]

The initiating processes determine the nature and scope of the project.[33] If this stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the business’ needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the business environment and making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should be made to fix them.

The initiating stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas. These areas can be recorded in a series of documents called Project Initiation documents. Project Initiation documents are a series of planned documents used to create order for the duration of the project. These tend to include:

计划

After the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of detail (see example of a flow-chart).[31] The main purpose is to plan time, cost, and resources adequately to estimate the work needed and to effectively manage risk during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a failure to adequately plan greatly reduces the project's chances of successfully accomplishing its goals.

Project planning generally consists of[34]

  • determining the project management methodology to follow (e.g. whether the plan will be defined wholly up front, iteratively, or in rolling waves);
  • developing the scope statement;
  • selecting the planning team;
  • identifying deliverables and creating the product and work breakdown structures;
  • identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequence;
  • estimating the resource requirements for the activities;
  • estimating time and cost for activities;
  • developing the schedule;
  • developing the budget;
  • risk planning;
  • developing quality assurance measures;
  • gaining formal approval to begin work.

Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope management, identifying roles and responsibilities, determining what to purchase for the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generally advisable.

For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the final product may be performed concurrent with the project planning activities, and may help to inform the planning team when identifying deliverables and planning activities.

执行

Executing process group processes[31]

While executing we must know what are the planned terms that need to be executed. The execution/implementation phase ensures that the project management plan's deliverables are executed accordingly. This phase involves proper allocation, co-ordination and management of human resources and any other resources such as material and budgets. The output of this phase is the project deliverables.

项目文件

Documenting everything within a project is key to being successful. To maintain budget, scope, effectiveness and pace a project must have physical documents pertaining to each specific task. With correct documentation, it is easy to see whether or not a project's requirement has been met. To go along with that, documentation provides information regarding what has already been completed for that project. Documentation throughout a project provides a paper trail for anyone who needs to go back and reference the work in the past. In most cases, documentation is the most successful way to monitor and control the specific phases of a project. With the correct documentation, a project's success can be tracked and observed as the project goes on. If performed correctly documentation can be the backbone to a project's success

监测控制

Monitoring and controlling process group processes[31]

Monitoring and controlling consists of those processes performed to observe project execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of the project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed and measured regularly to identify variances from the project management plan.

Monitoring and controlling includes:[35]

  • Measuring the ongoing project activities ('where we are');
  • Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be);
  • Identifying corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (How can we get on track again);
  • Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented.

Two main mechanisms support monitoring and controlling in projects. On the one hand, contracts offer a set of rules and incentives often supported by potential penalties and sanctions.[36] On the other hand, scholars in business and management have paid attention to the role of integrators (also called project barons) to achieve a project’s objectives.[37][38] In turn, recent research in project management has questioned the type of interplay between contracts and integrators. Some have argued that these two monitoring mechanisms operate as substitutes[39] as one type of organization would decrease the advantages of using the other one, while others have suggested that they can complement each other.[40]

In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and control process also provides feedback between project phases, to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan.

Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:[32]

  • Continuing support of end-users
  • Correction of errors
  • Updates to the product over time
Monitoring and controlling cycle

In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved.

Over the course of any construction project, the work scope may change. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering, and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as change management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, "as built." The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts. Construction document management is a highly important task undertaken with the aid of an online or desktop software system, or maintained through physical documentation. The increasing legality pertaining to the construction industry's maintenance of correct documentation has caused the increase in the need for document management systems.

When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not justify the original proposed investment in the project. Successful project management identifies these components, and tracks and monitors progress, so as to stay within time and budget frames already outlined at the commencement of the project. Exact methods were suggested to identify the most informative monitoring points along the project life-cycle regarding its progress and expected duration.[41]

项目终结

Closing process group processes.[31]

Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending thereof. Administrative activities include the archiving of the files and documenting lessons learned.

This phase consists of:[32]

  • Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phase.
  • Project close: Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the project or a project phase

Also included in this phase is the Post Implementation Review. This is a vital phase of the project for the project team to learn from experiences and apply to future projects. Normally a Post Implementation Review consists of looking at things that went well and analyzing things that went badly on the project to come up with lessons learned.

项目控制及其系统

Project controlling (also known as Cost Engineering) should be established as an independent function in project management. It implements verification and controlling function during the processing of a project to reinforce the defined performance and formal goals.[42] The tasks of project controlling are also:

  • the creation of infrastructure for the supply of the right information and its update
  • the establishment of a way to communicate disparities of project parameters
  • the development of project information technology based on an intranet or the determination of a project key performance indicator system (KPI)
  • divergence analyses and generation of proposals for potential project regulations[43]
  • the establishment of methods to accomplish an appropriate project structure, project workflow organization, project control and governance
  • creation of transparency among the project parameters[44]

Fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved by applying specific methods and instruments of project controlling. The following methods of project controlling can be applied:

  • investment analysis
  • cost–benefit analysis
  • value benefit analysis
  • expert surveys
  • simulation calculations
  • risk-profile analysis
  • surcharge calculations
  • milestone trend analysis
  • cost trend analysis
  • target/actual-comparison[45]

Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on track, on-time and within budget.[35] Project control begins early in the project with planning and ends late in the project with post-implementation review, having a thorough involvement of each step in the process. Projects may be audited or reviewed while the project is in progress. Formal audits are generally risk or compliance-based and management will direct the objectives of the audit. An examination may include a comparison of approved project management processes with how the project is actually being managed.[46] Each project should be assessed for the appropriate level of control needed: too much control is too time-consuming, too little control is very risky. If project control is not implemented correctly, the cost to the business should be clarified in terms of errors and fixes.

Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication, time, change, procurement, and human resources. In addition, auditors should consider how important the projects are to the financial statements, how reliant the stakeholders are on controls, and how many controls exist. Auditors should review the development process and procedures for how they are implemented. The process of development and the quality of the final product may also be assessed if needed or requested. A business may want the auditing firm to be involved throughout the process to catch problems earlier on so that they can be fixed more easily. An auditor can serve as a controls consultant as part of the development team or as an independent auditor as part of an audit.

Businesses sometimes use formal systems development processes. These help assure systems are developed successfully. A formal process is more effective in creating strong controls, and auditors should review this process to confirm that it is well designed and is followed in practice. A good formal systems development plan outlines:

  • A strategy to align development with the organization's broader objectives
  • Standards for new systems
  • Project management policies for timing and budgeting
  • Procedures describing the process
  • Evaluation of quality of change

项目特点

单个项目有五个重要特点：（1）具体的开始与终结日期；（2）执行与完成项目的主体是人；（3）成果是特定的产品或服务；（4）临时性；（5）分步骤执行。

项目复杂性

Complexity and its nature plays an important role in the area of project management. Despite having number of debates on this subject matter, studies suggest lack of definition and reasonable understanding of complexity in relation to management of complex projects.[47] As it is considered that project complexity and project performance are closely related, it is important to define and measure complexity of the project for project management to be effective.[48]

By applying the discovery in measuring work complexity described in Requisite Organization and Stratified Systems Theory, Dr Elliott Jaques classifies projects and project work (stages, tasks) into basic 7 levels of project complexity based on such criteria as time-span of discretion and complexity of a project's output:[49][50]

  • Level 1 Project – improve the direct output of an activity (quantity, quality, time) within a business process with targeted completion time up to 3 months.
  • Level 2 Project – develop and improve compliance to a business process with targeted completion time from 3 months to 1 year.
  • Level 3 Project – develop, change, and improve a business process with targeted completion time from 1 to 2 years.
  • Level 4 Project – develop, change, and improve a functional system with targeted completion time from 2 to 5 years.
  • Level 5 Project – develop, change, and improve a group of functional systems / business function with targeted completion time from 5 to 10 years.
  • Level 6 Project – develop, change, and improve a whole single value chain of a company with targeted completion time from 10 to 20 years.
  • Level 7 Project – develop, change, and improve multiple value chains of a company with target completion time from 20 to 50 years.[51]

Benefits from measuring Project Complexity is to improve project people feasibility by:[52]

  • Match the level of a project's complexity with effective targeted completion time of a project
  • Match the level of a project's complexity with the respective capability level of the project manager
  • Match the level of a project task's complexity with the respective capability of the project members

项目管理者

A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project managers are in charge of the people in a project. People are the key to any successful project. Without the correct people in the right place and at the right time a project cannot be successful. Project managers can have the responsibility of the planning, execution, controlling, and closing of any project typically relating to the construction industry, engineering, architecture, computing, and telecommunications. Many other fields of production engineering, design engineering, and heavy industrial have project managers.

A project manager needs to understand the order of execution of a project to schedule the project correctly as well as the time necessary to accomplish each individual task within the project. A project manager is the person accountable for accomplishing the stated project objectives on the behalf of the client. Project Managers tend to have multiple years’ experience in their field. A project manager is required to know the project in and out while supervising the workers along with the project. Typically in most construction, engineering, architecture, and industrial projects, a project manager has another manager working alongside of them who is typically responsible for the execution of task on a daily basis. This position in some cases is known as a superintendent. A superintendent and project manager work hand in hand in completing daily project task. Key project management responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives, building the project requirements, and managing the triple constraint (now including more constraints and calling it competing constraints) for projects, which is cost, time, quality and scope for the first three but about three additional ones in current project management. A typical project is composed of a team of workers who work under the project manager to complete the assignment within the time and budget targets. A project manager normally reports directly to someone of higher stature on the completion and success of the project.

A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and implement the exact needs of the client, based on knowledge of the firm they are representing. The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures of the contracting party, and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is essential in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, client satisfaction, can be realized.

A complete project manager, a term first coined by Dr. Robert J. Graham in his simulation, has been expanded upon by Randall L. Englund and Alfonso Bucero. They describe a complete project manager as a person who embraces multiple disciplines, such as leadership, influence, negotiations, politics, change and conflict management, and humor. These are all "soft" people skills that enable project leaders to be more effective and achieve optimized, consistent results.

多层次成功框架和标准

There is a tendency to confuse the project success with project management success. They are two different things. Project management success criteria is different from project success criteria. The project management is said to be successful if the given project is completed within the agreed upon time, met the agreed upon scope and within the agreed upon budget. Subsequent to the triple constraints, multiple constraints have been considered to ensure project success. However, the triple or multiple constraints indicate only the efficiency measures of the project, which are indeed the project management success criteria during the project lifecycle.

The priori criteria leave out the more important after-completion results of the project which comprise four levels i.e. the output (product) success, outcome (benefits) success and impact (strategic) success during the product lifecycle. These posterior success criteria indicate the effectiveness measures of the project product, service or result, after the project completion and handover. This overarching multilevel success framework of projects, programs and portfolios has been developed by Paul Bannerman in 2008.[53] In other words, a project is said to be successful, when it succeeds in achieving the expected business case which needs to be clearly identified and defined during the project inception and selection before starting the development phase. This multilevel success framework conforms to the theory of project as a transformation depicted as the input-process / activity-output-outcome-impact in order to generate whatever value intended. Emanuel Camilleri in 2011 classifies all the critical success and failure factors into groups and matches each of them with the multilevel success criteria in order to deliver business value.[54]

风险管理

主条目：Project risk management

The United States Department of Defense states; "Cost, Schedule, Performance, and Risk" are the four elements through which Department of Defense acquisition professionals make trade-offs and track program status.[55] There are also international standards. Risk management applies proactive identification (see tools) of future problems and understanding of their consequences allowing predictive decisions about projects.

工作分解结构

主条目：Work breakdown structure和Scope (project management)

The work breakdown structure (WBS) is a tree structure that shows a subdivision of the activities required to achieve an objective – for example a portfolio, program, project, and contract. The WBS may be hardware-, product-, service-, or process-oriented (see an example in a NASA reporting structure (2001)).[56] Beside WBS for project scope management, there are organizational breakdown structure (chart), cost breakdown structure and risk breakdown structure.

A WBS can be developed by starting with the end objective and successively subdividing it into manageable components in terms of size, duration, and responsibility (e.g., systems, subsystems, components, tasks, sub-tasks, and work packages), which include all steps necessary to achieve the objective.[27]

The work breakdown structure provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall planning and control of a contract and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from which the statement of work can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established.[56] The work breakdown structure can be displayed in two forms, as a table with subdivision of tasks or as an organisational chart whose lowest nodes are referred to as "work packages".

It is an essential element in assessing the quality of a plan, and an initial element used during the planning of the project. For example, a WBS is used when the project is scheduled, so that the use of work packages can be recorded and tracked.

国际标准

There are several project management standards, including:

  • The ISO standards ISO 9000, a family of standards for quality management systems, and the ISO 10006:2003, for Quality management systems and guidelines for quality management in projects.
  • ISO 21500:2012 – Guidance on project management. This is the first International Standard related to project management published by ISO. Other standards in the 21500 family include 21503:2017 Guidance on programme management; 21504:2015 Guidance on portfolio management; 21505:2017 Guidance on governance; 21506:2018 Vocabulary; 21508:2018 Earned value management in project and programme management; and 21511:2018 Work breakdown structures for project and programme management.
  • ISO 31000:2009 – Risk management.
  • ISO/IEC/IEEE 16326:2009 – Systems and Software Engineering—Life Cycle Processes—Project Management[57]
  • Individual Competence Baseline (ICB) from the International Project Management Association (IPMA).[58]
  • Capability Maturity Model (CMM) from the Software Engineering Institute.
  • GAPPS, Global Alliance for Project Performance Standards – an open source standard describing COMPETENCIES for project and program managers.
  • HERMES method, Swiss general project management method, selected for use in Luxembourg and international organizations.
  • The logical framework approach (LFA), which is popular in international development organizations.
  • PMBOK Guide from the Project Management Institute (PMI).
  • PRINCE2 from AXELOS.
  • Team Software Process (TSP) from the Software Engineering Institute.
  • Total Cost Management Framework, AACE International's Methodology for Integrated Portfolio, Program and Project Management.
  • V-Model, an original systems development method.

计划管理

主条目：Program management

Some projects, either identical or different, can be managed as program management so that a program manager is in charge of project managers. Hence, a program manager is also known as a project director.

项目组合管理

主条目：Project portfolio management

An increasing number of organizations are using what is referred to as project portfolio management (PPM) as a means of selecting the right projects and then using project management techniques[59] as the means for delivering the outcomes in the form of benefits to the performing public, private or not-for-profit organization. PPM is usually performed by a dedicated team of managers organized within an Enterprise Project Management Office (PMO) headed by a PMO director, usually based within the organization. Thus, the position in charge of PPM can also be designated as the chief project officer or the chief technology officer. In cases where strategic initiatives of an organization form the bulk of the PPM, the head of the PPM is titled as the chief initiative officer.

项目管理软件

主条目：Project management software和Project management information system

Project management software is software used to help plan, organize, and manage resource pools, develop resource estimates and implement plans. Depending on the sophistication of the software, functionality may include estimation and planning, scheduling, cost control and budget management, resource allocation, collaboration software, communication, decision-making, workflow, risk, quality, documentation, and/or administration systems.[60][61]

可视化项目管理

主条目：Virtual team

Virtual program management (VPM) is management of a project done by a virtual team, though it rarely may refer to a project implementing a virtual environment[62] It is noted that managing a virtual project is fundamentally different from managing traditional projects,[63] combining concerns of telecommuting and global collaboration (culture, time zones, language).[64]

See also

参考文献

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