可薩猶太人陰謀論
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可薩猶太人陰謀論是一套關於阿什肯納茲猶太人歷史起源的反猶太主義及反錫安主義陰謀論。該理論聲稱，大量可薩人曾皈依猶太教；可薩汗國滅亡後，可薩裔猶太人逃往東歐，成為東歐猶太人口的絕大多數[1]；現今的阿什肯納茲猶太人多為可薩人的後裔。信奉該理論的人士通常相信，「可薩猶太人」、共濟會及錫安主義者之間存在「秘密聯盟」，意圖「統治世界」。
絕大多數歷史學、系譜學及宗教學學者認為該理論缺乏事實基礎及證據支持。遺傳學研究結果亦與該假說相抵觸。[2]
可薩汗國
普遍認為，歷史上可薩人主要由來自東方的鐵勒部落以及一些講波斯語的部落、北高加索人及斯拉夫人組成。
7至9世紀期間，拜占庭帝國試圖強迫猶太人改宗基督教，許多猶太人故此從中東逃往北高加索。可薩汗國便位於此處。該國君主為可汗，通常居住在宮殿。該國尊重宗教信仰並給予所有宗教同等地位，同時允許國內不同宗教群體（包括猶太人、基督徒、穆斯林、騰格里信徒等）擁有自己的法官及獨立法庭。
8世紀，以可汗為首的可薩貴族精英接受了猶太教。該國大多數民眾對於猶太教仍是知之甚少。
10世紀，可薩汗國的勢力因基輔羅斯人的攻擊而削弱。最終，基輔羅斯奪取了可薩汗國的所有土地，可薩汗國滅亡。
理論產生
蘇聯曾盛行各種反猶太主義陰謀論，例如「猶太人控制世界」陰謀論及「猶太醫生害死高官」陰謀論。
俄羅斯根深蒂固的反猶太主義在1960年演變為反錫安主義，指控「全球錫安主義者」試圖接管世界。同時，蘇聯宣傳人員認為「這種邪惡」是由美國及以色列引導的，只有蘇聯才能領導抵抗錫安主義並帶領世界走向美好未來。施納勒曼認為，反猶太主義在俄羅斯民族主義的形成中發揮了基礎性作用。[3]
20世紀70年代，「猶太人源於可薩人皈依」的理論開始在俄羅斯及東歐流行。後來俄羅斯東正教民族主義者及公共媒體開始擔心該理論的傳播，並試圖否認可薩汗國的存在，因為他們憂慮該理論可能令俄羅斯猶太人有理由聲索俄羅斯南部地區的主權。
世界傳播
該理論在全球得到傳播，在各國極端政治勢力以及原教旨主義群體中尤為盛行，為新納粹主義的興起奠定了基礎。
蘇聯反猶宣傳家瓦列里·葉姆利亞諾夫將該理論與「世界錫安主義」陰謀論及「猶太共濟會控制世界」陰謀論相結合，並以阿拉伯語傳播，在阿拉伯國家及伊斯蘭國家大受歡迎，對這些國家內反猶太主義及反錫安主義的發展產生了深遠影響。葉姆利亞諾夫聲稱，弗拉基米爾一世是猶太人後裔，因此他故意抹去了俄羅斯雅利安人的歷史、觀念及文化，並引入基督教的歷史、觀念及文化以取代；錫安主義是「世界上一切邪惡的根源」，「只有透過雅利安人摧毀基督教才能夠挫敗錫安主義陰謀」。
中東地區文獻開始將所謂「可薩猶太人」描繪成「伊斯蘭教及阿拉伯人的敵人」（因可薩人為爭奪高加索曾多次與阿拉伯人作戰）。
至今仍有眾多反錫安主義者使用該理論試圖否定古以色列人與今猶太人之間的繼承關係，儘管該理論並沒有提到塞法迪猶太人及米茲拉希猶太人（共佔以色列猶太人口約50%）[4]。美國種族主義者（包括學者洛斯羅普·斯托達德及三K黨分子）、俄羅斯民族主義者等群體中亦仍有不少人利用該理論傳播反猶太主義。[5][6]在阿拉伯世界，該理論一直遊走在反錫安主義、反猶太主義及其相交地帶。[7]
近年來，社交媒體的普及進一步推動了該理論及其他反猶太陰謀論的傳播。[8][9][10][11]
學術觀點
學術上，「大多數猶太人源於可薩人皈依」的假說早已被否定，自20世紀50年代末期便不再被提起。
學者凱文·艾倫·布洛克認為該假說無法成立，並表示完全無法贊同該理論，其研究卻經常被支持該理論的人士斷章取義地引用。
在20世紀下半葉，以色列學者阿巴·埃文[12]、彼得·戈爾登[13]、勞埃德·加特納[14]、諾曼·戈盧布及奧姆利安·普里茨克[15]認為，歷史上確實可能有少數可薩人與猶太人通婚，並成為阿什肯納茲猶太人的祖源的一小部分。
1987年，歷史學者伯納德·劉易斯指出，「歐洲猶太人不是古以色列人後裔，而是可薩人後裔」的假說沒有任何證據支持，早已被所有嚴謹的學者放棄，包括阿拉伯學者[16][17]；該理論只是偶爾出現在阿拉伯人反錫安主義的政治論戰中。[17][18]
2000年，科普作家尼古拉斯·韋德引用一篇關於阿什肯納茲猶太人Y染色體譜系的遺傳學論文[19]，駁斥「阿什肯納茲猶太人大多數是皈依者或可薩人後裔」的理論。[20]
2013年，多倫·貝哈爾等遺傳學家研究認為，猶太人與可薩人之間基本上不可能有強聯繫；由於可薩人的現代後裔不明，「猶太可薩人」假說難以用遺傳學方法檢驗；在阿什肯納茲猶太人中沒有發現任何遺傳標記可將他們與高加索或可薩民族聯繫起來；相反，阿什肯納茲猶太人在基因上最接近其他猶太群體以及非猶太中東及歐洲人群。[2]
2022年，凱文·艾倫·布洛克出示證據表明，阿什肯納茲猶太人約有50%的基因與中東地區有關。[21]
基因研究的共識是，全球猶太人（包括阿什肯納茲猶太人）擁有源自古代中東共同祖先的大量遺傳基因，阿什肯納茲猶太人沒有可追溯至可薩人的遺傳基因。[2]
參見
參考
- ^ Venton 2013，第75頁.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Behar & et al. 2013.
- ^ Shnirelman. 2002. Pp. 1-3
- ^ Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009, CBS. Table 2.24 – Jews, by country of origin and age (PDF). [11 March 2019]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2023-10-29）.
- ^ Barkun 2012:'Although the Khazar theory gets surprisingly little attention in scholarly histories of anti-Semitism, it has been an influential theme among American anti-Semites since the immigration restrictionists of the 1920s,'.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke 2003.
- ^ Harkabi 1987: "Arab anti-Semitism might have been expected to be free from the idea of racial odium, since Jews and Arabs are both regarded by race theory as Semites, but the odium is directed, not against the Semitic race, but against the Jews as a historical group. The main idea is that the Jews, racially, are a mongrel community, most of them being not Semites, but of Khazar and European origin." This essay was translated from Harkabi Hebrew text 'Arab Antisemitism' in Shmuel Ettinger, Continuity and Discontinuity in Antisemitism (Hebrew), 1968, p.50.
- ^ One of the Jersey City Shooting Suspects Believed anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theory, ADL Says. Haaretz. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2022-12-07） （英语）.
- ^ Antisemitic Conspiracy Theories Abound Around Russian Assault on Ukraine | ADL. www.adl.org. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2022-11-29） （英语）.
- ^ Khazars | #TranslateHate | AJC. www.ajc.org. 2021-03-30 [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2023-10-31） （英语）.
- ^ Khazars | Center on Extremism. extremismterms.adl.org. [2022-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2023-10-29） （英语）.
- ^ Abba Eban. My People: The Story of the Jews. Behrman House. 1968: 150 （英语）.
It is likely too that some Khazar progeny reached the various Slavic lands where they helped to build the great Jewish centers of Eastern Europe.
- ^ Peter B. Golden. An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Otto Harrassowitz. 1992: 243–244. ISBN 9783447032742 （英语）.
It is very likely that Judaized Khazar elements, especially those that had acculturated to the cities, contributed to the subsequently Slavic-speaking Jewish communities of Kievan Rus'. These were ultimately absorbed by Yiddish-speaking Jews entering the Ukraine and Belorussia from Poland and Central Europe.
- ^ Lloyd P. Gartner. History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford University Press. 2000: 19 （英语）.
- ^ Norman Golb; Omeljan Pritsak. Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century. Cornell University Press. 1982: xv. ISBN 9780801412219 （英语）.
- ^ Sand 2010
- ^ 17.0 17.1 Lewis 1987:'Some limit this denial to European Jews and make use of the theory that the Jews of Europe are not of Israelite descent at all but are the offspring of a tribe of Central Asian Turks converted to Judaism, called the Khazars. This theory, first put forward by an Austrian anthropologist in the early years of this century, is supported by no evidence whatsoever. It has long since been abandoned by all serious scholars in the field, including those in Arab countries, where Khazar theory is little used except in occasional political polemics.' Assertions of this kind has been challenged by Paul WexlerWexler 2007 who also notes that the arguments on this issue are riven by contrasting ideological investments: "Most writers who have supported the Ashkenazi-Khazar hypothesis have not argued their claims in a convincing manner ... The opponents of the Khazar-Ashkenazi nexus are no less guilty of empty polemics and unconvincing arguments."(p.537).
- ^ Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry Into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Company. 1999. ISBN 9780393318395.
- ^ Hammer MF, Redd AJ, Wood ET, Bonner MR, Jarjanazi H, Karafet T, Santachiara-Benerecetti S, Oppenheim A, Jobling MA, Jenkins T, Ostrer H, Bonne-Tamir B. Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. June 2000, 97 (12): 6769–74. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. PMC 18733
. PMID 10801975. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997 .
- ^ Wade, Nicholas. Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora. The New York Times. 9 May 2000 [8 June 2021]. （原始内容存档于2020-04-01）.
- ^ Kevin Brook. The Maternal Genetic Lineages of Ashkenazic Jews. Academic Studies Press. 2022: 3. ISBN 978-1-64469-984-3. doi:10.2307/j.ctv33mgbcn （英语）.
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延伸閱讀
- Victor Shnirelman. 2002. The Myth of the Khazars and Intellectual Antisemitism in Russia, 1970s-1990s. The Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
外部連結
- Rory Miller(2020) The anti-Zionist 'Jewish Khazar' syndrome in the official British mind （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Fishberg, Maurice (1911): The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment.
- The Kievan Letter scan in the Cambridge University Library collection.
- Khazaria.com （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Resources - Medieval Jewish History - The Khazars The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- Khazar Historic Maps
- The Kitab al-Khazari of Judah Hallevi, full English translation at sacred-texts.com （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- Ancient lost capital of the Khazar kingdom found （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）